Fall+Final+Review+Notes

__**Chapter 11**__
 * ** "little ice age"- ** a slight drop in the overall temperatures caused a shorten growing season, severe storms, constant rain, caused famine, killed estimated 10% of European population; chronic malnutrition increased infant mortality and decreased resistance to infection (one of the causes of the Black Death)
 * **Black Death**- Terrible plague( Bubonic and Pneumonic) that occurred mainly between 1347-1351 killing 25-50% of Europe's population. route through Europe: started in France and Italy and traveled along trade routes
 * ** bubonic plague ** -least toxic of plagues, killed 50-60% of its victims, severe symptoms, partially responsible for Black Death; most common and most important form in the diffusion of the Black Death
 * // **Yersina pestis**- // bacteria that caused bubonic plague, was transmitted by rat's fleas
 * **pneumonic plague**- form of the plague that could be transmitted form person to person
 * ** Giovanni Boccaccio's ** // **Decameron**- // said that everone abandoned all responsibility and felt as if their days were numbered during the Black death. written in the vernacular and told from a secular point of view. it reflects the immediate easygoing, cynical postplague values
 * ** flagellants ** -those who participated in public flogging in order in repentance of sins
 * ** pogroms ** -organized massacres of Jews in Germany
 * ** Statute of Laborers ** -attempted to limit wages to preplague levels and forbid the mobility of peasants as well, passed by the English Paliament in 1351
 * t ** he ** // **Jacquerie**- // a peasant revolt in 1358, caused by plague, economic upheaval and also effects of the 100 yrs war, in France
 * ** Wat Tyler ** -well to do peasant, led English Peasant Revolt with John Ball
 * ** John Ball ** -preacher, led English Peasant Revolt with Wat Tyler
 * ** Florence's ** // **ciompi**- // 1378, wool workers revolt from which they gianed the right to form guilds and be represented in government; however, all rights were lost by 1382
 * **the longbow**- a large bow drawn by hand and shooting a long feathered arrow. It was the chief weapon of English armies from the 14th century until the introduction of firearms. Had more rapid speed of fire than the more powerful crossbow. Invented by the Welsh.
 * **the Battle of Crecy**-. A battle between the french and english; the french mounted a calvary charge and the English archers devastated the french Calvary. The battle was a stunning success for the english
 * ** Henry V-king of England (1413-1422) ** renewed the hundred years war during a period of civil war in France. He won the battle of Agincourt and was named Heir to the throne of France. He also reconquered normandy.
 * ** the Battle of Agincourt ** -6,000 French men died and only 300 English men died,1415, which helped cause the Treaty of Troyes.
 * ** Joan of Arc ** -peasant born in 1412, felt her favorite saints were motivaing her to lead the French, inspired French soldiers and they won the Seige of Orleans and credited her inspiration, captured by burgundians, the inquisition charged with witchcraft and burned at the stake, exonerated of these charges, made a saint of the Catholic church in 1920
 * ** Orleans ** -battle where Joan of Arc inspired the French army, major turning point in the war and gave the french sole control of the loire river valley
 * ** Charles the dauphin/VII ** -considered himself to be real heir of French throne despite being disinherited by the Treaty of Troyes, governed southern 2/3 of France, crowned king in July 1429
 * ** gunpowder- ** invented by the chinese during the 11th century, and aided the French victory due to its use in the cannon
 * ** the ** // **gabelle**- // French tax on salt the
 * ** //taille-// ** French tax on each household and the amount of land they held
 * ** dukes of Burgundy and Orleans ** -competed to control Charles and the French monarchy. Struggles created chaos for the French government and people.
 * ** Golden Bull of Charles IV- ** document issued by Charles IV that created the electoral principle for the kings of germany and created a generally weak german monarchy
 * ** Italian communes- larger city states such as Florence,Venice,and Milan adopted or took over smaller city states **
 * the Visconti and the d'Este-where the hereditary despots of Milan until Giangaleazzo visconti purchased the title of Duke from the Holy Roman Emperor **
 * **// condottieri- //**Leaders of mercenary soldiers
 * **// grandi- //**A patrician class of nobles who ruled Florence before the popolo grasso took over
 * // **popolo grasso-** //Wealthy merchant-industrialist class that dominated the florentine republic "fat people"
 * // **popolo minute-** //Small shopkeepers and artisans
 * ** Council of Ten and the doge- ** the government system in Venice was an oligarchy of two hundered families; council of ten became the real executive power in venice. the doge(or duke) was mainly just a figurehead and held no real power
 * ** Pope Boniface VIII's **// **Unam Sanctam** - // The strongest statement ever made by a pope on the supremacy of spiritual authority over the secular authority.
 * ** Avignon- ** city in Holy Roman Empire but on the border of France where the Popes lived for 52 years
 * **Catherine of Siena-** person with saintly visions, who went to the Pope in Avignon and appealed for his return to Rome
 * ** Great Schism- ** Italian and Roman citizens threatened the College of Cardinals to chose an Italian, Pope Urban IV, and return the papacy to Rome. Then French Cardinals said that they were forced to elect the Italian and then elected Clement VII to rule Avignon and then Council of Pisa elected Alexander V to try to over power the other 2 and then finally Council Of Constance was called and elected Martin V to be the pope
 * ** The Antichrist - ** The person who is the bearer of the End times and he claims to be Jesus
 * ** Conciliarism ** - belief that the great schism could only be solved by a general council of the church and its "head members"
 * **Marsiglio of Padua-** rector of the university of of Paris and wrote the // Defender of the Peace // argued that the church was only one element of society and most be confined to spiritual functions and that the spiritual authority must not reside with the Pope but with a general church council representing it's members
 * ** Council of Constance ** -called by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, lasted from 1414-1418, ended the Great schism and ended in the election of a Roman as Pope
 * **purgatory-** the place where the soul went following death before ascension to heaven where the soul is purified of punishment for sins committed in life
 * **good deeds and pilgrimages-** became more popular in the late middle ages as people lost trust in the clergy and preferred a more mechanical path to salivation
 * **Meister Eckhart-** Dominican theologian that sparked a mystical movement in western germany based on the union of the soul with god
 * **Modern Devotion-** a religious movement in the German low countries that was founded by Gerard Groote and centered around people imitating jesus and leading lives dedicated to serving others
 * ** Brothers of the Common Life- ** a religious movement of laypeople that followed the teaching of Gerard Groote
 * **William of Occam and nominalism-** a philosopher that had a radical interpretation of nominalism emphasized that reason could not prove spiritualtruths and the use of reason to explain observablephenomena of the world
 * ** The vernacular- ** the common everyday langue of the people
 * ** Dante's // Divine Comedy- //**italian vernacular story that details the souls progression to salvation
 * ** Petrarch's sonnets- ** written by Francesco Petrarca, Considered one of the European Greatest Poets, inspired by his love for a women named Laura and also incorporated Italian vernacular into his poems
 * ** Chaucer's //Canterbury Tales-// ** //brought a sophistication, beautiful expression, forceful language and His East Midland dialect into the chief ancestor of the modern English language//
 * ** Christine de Pizan- ** Her father had a position in the French courts which allowed for Pizan to get a good education. Her husband died when she was 25 and left with 3 children and a mother to support. "Book of the City of the Ladies" and denounced male writers who denounced females.
 * ** Giotto- ** desired for his paintings to imitate nature, forerunner of early renaissance, raised in a peasant family, had 3D in his paintings and captured grief and despair of mourners.
 * ** Francisco Traini's //The Triumph of Death -// ** //depicts young aristocratic hunters finding dead corpses on the hunt and repulsing in// //disgust//
 * ** the "four humors" - ** theory grounded in classical Greek that each element is connected to particular organs: Blood - Air(From the heart), phelgm - Water(from the brain) yellow bile- fire(from the liver) and black bile - ground(from the spleen)
 * ** clocks - ** invented by the end of the 13th century and perfected in the 14 century, installed in towers and churches and changed the way we perceive time
 * ** Eyeglasses ** - introduced near the end of the 13nth century and perfected in the 14nth century, made smaller script easier to read and allowed people conserve paper by allowing them to write small
 * ** Paper- ** 14nth century invention, newer cheaper paper was made from cotton rags

__**Chapter 12**__


 * __Renaissance__** -Rebirth of greco-roman civilization, birthplace of the modern world, revival of antiquity, the perfecting of the individual, and secularism


 * __Jacob Burckhardt__** -Swiss historian and art critic who created the modern concept of the Renaissance in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, published in 1860


 * __Leon Battista Alberti__** -Florentine architect said that "Men can do all things if they will"


 * __Hanseatic League__** -A commercial and military association formed by North German coastal towns that established settlements and commercial bases that had a monopoly on northern european trade for almost 200 years.


 * __House of Medici__** -Greatest bank in Europe and bankers of the Papacy, suffered a rather sudden decline at the end of the 15th century


 * __Castiglione’s__** //**__Book of the Courtie__r** -Baldassare Castiglione's book that described the 3 basic attributes of the perfect courtier//


 * __Condottieri__** -Leaders of mercenary soldiers


 * __Francisco Sforza__** -a condottieri who turned on his Milanese employers and conquered Milan and became the duke of Milan


 * __Cosimo d’Medic__i** -medici who in 1434 took control of the florentine oligarchy

__T**he Papal States**__ -lands in central Italy that were nominally under the political control of the popes


 * __Isabella d’Este__** -daughter of the duke of ferrara, educated and was know for her intelligence and political wisdom, called the first lady of the world, married duke of mantua and during his absence she successfully rulled mantua


 * __The Peace of Lodi__** -1454 ended a half century of warfare, started 40 years of peace in Italy and created an alliance system that created a balance of power


 * __Balance of Power__** - concept designed to prevent the aggrandizement(increasing of size) of any one state at the expense of the others


 * __1527 sack of Rome__** - Spanish sacking of Rome by King Charles I of Spain which led to the dominance of Spain in Italy

__**Machiavell**i__ -Wrote a short treatise on political power that gave him a reputation as a political opportunist after participating in politics sa secretary to the Florentine Council of Ten


 * __The Prince__** -Written by Machiavelli, one of the most famous treatises on political power in the Western world, speaks of the acquisition and expansion of political power as the means of restoring and maintaining order

__**Civic humanism**__-a humanist movement that became closely tied to the Florentine civic spirit and pride, the roman statesmen and intelectual Cicero inspired the renaissance ideal of an active intellectual life and active participation in the state.


 * __Petrarch__** -Father of humanism, first intellectual to classify the Middle Ages as a period of darkness

__**Leonardo Bruni’s**__ //**__The New Cicero__**// -Biography of Cicero in which Bruni waxed enthusiasm about the fusion of political action and literary creation

__**Lorenzo Valla**__ -Papal secretary, wrote The Elegances of the Latin Language, an effort to purify medieval Latin and restore Latin to its proper position over the vernacular. examined proper use of Classic Latin and created a new literary standard

__**Marcilio Ficino**__ -translated Plato's dialogues for Cosimo de Medici, one of the leaders at Florentine Platonic Academy, dedicated his life to the translation of Plato and the exposition of neoplatonism

__**Neoplatonism**__-the Platonic philosophy based on two ideas: the hierarchy of substances (plants lowest form, God highest, humans in middle) and a theory of spiritual love (all parts of universe held together by bonds of sympathetic love)

Exposition of the Platonic philosophy, translation of Plato

__**Renaissance Hermeticism**__- Product of the Florentine intellectual environment of the late 15th century, these manuscripts stressed the occult sciences with an emphasis on astrology, alchemy, or magic, and theological and philosophical beliefs and speculations.

__**Pico della Mirandola’s**__ //__**Oration**__// -One of the most famous pieces of writing of the Renaissance, nuggets of universal truth that were part of God's revelation to humanity, unlimited human potential, believed in Hermeticism

__**“liberal** **studies”**__- history, moral philosophy, eloquence, letters, poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music, and strived to create individuals who followed a path of virtue adn wisdom and possessed the rhetorical skills which to persuade others to do the same.


 * __Francisco Guicciardini__** -Wrote The History of Italy and History of Florence that represented the beginning of modern analytical historiography, wrote to teach lessons, extensive background in government and diplomatic affairs


 * __Johannes Gutenberg__** -Gutenberg's Bible (1445-1450) was the first true book in the West produced from moveable type


 * __Masaccio__** -used monumental figures, a more relaistic relationship between figures and landscape, adn visual representation of the laws of perspective

__**Lorenzo the Magnificent**__ - head of the Medici family, patron of the arts, controlled Florence's government, City's leading citizen

__**Botticel****li**__ -his intrest in Greek and Roman mythology, gave his characters a worldly quality that is far removed from the realism

//__**Primavera**__ -// by Botticelli painting in the garden of venus, a garden of eternal spring, the figures have a worldly quality that is different from works during it's time

__**Donatello’s**__ //__**David**__// - the first life size freestanding bronze nude in European art since antiquity, radiated a simplicity and strength that reflected the dignity of humanity

__**Brunelleschi’s Dome**__ -A dome built by Brunelleschi between 1420-1436 that spanned a 140 foot opening

__**High Renaissance**__ -Final stage of Renaissance art, flourished between 1480-1520, increased importance of Rome as a new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance

__**Leonardo da Vinci**__ -Artistic giant during the High Renaissance, transitional figure in the shift to High Renaissance principles, initiated the preoccupation with the idealization of nature, Last Supper

__**Raphael**__ -Attempted to achieve an ideal of beauty surpassing human standards, School of Athen which reveals a world of balance, harmony, and order-the underlying principles of the art of the Classical world of Greece and Rome


 * __Michelangelo__- ** Accomplished painter, sculptor, and architect, influenced by neoplatonism, sistine chapel, creation of Adam, David

**__Sistine__ __Chapel__-**Chapel in Rome which Pope Julius II called Michelangelo to decorate the ceiling

__ **Bramante and St. Peter’s-** __ Architect of the Tempietto, columns, dome, and sanctuary form a monumental and harmonious whole, captured the grandeur of Ancient Rome

__** Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of **__ **__Artists__-** Painter who wrote a biography of Leonardo de Vinci among other artists

__ **Northern** **Renaissance-**__ Artists in the north took different approaches, choosing to focus on details

**__Jan van Eyck__-**Among first to use oil paint, Giovanni Arnolfini and HIs Bride, work truly indicative of northern Renaissance painters

**__Albrecht Durer__-**Greatly affected by the Italians, Adoration of the Magi, paid attention to details while achieving a standard of ideal beauty by a careful examination of human form

**__Madrigals__-**Chief form of secular music during the Renaissance

__ **“new monarchies”-** __the states that made attempts to reestablish the centralized power of monarchical governments (esp: France, England, Spain)


 * __Louis XI the Spider__- ** Wily, devious, King of France, Retained the taille as a permanent tax, tried to repress the French nobility

**Henry VII-** first Tudor king in England. created a strong central monarchy. ended "livery and maintenance" and created the Court of Star Chamber(allowed for torture to be used in order to extract information), tried to avoid wars, and gained the favor of the middle class by not taxing them so much

**Ferdinand and Isabella-** attempted to unify spain by stripping the royal council of aristocrats and filling it with middle class lawyers instead, got a more professional army, controlled the Catholic Church by eliminating by restoring discipline and eliminating immorality among the clergy, and set up the Inquisition in an attempt to create an absolute religious orthodoxy

**Spanish Inquisition-** court rulings set up by Ferdinand and Isabella to determine who was a Christian and who was a Jew or Muslim. Muslims and Jews were either driven out or killed

**The Hapsburgs-** failed to create a strong centralized monarchy and their only success was through their smart political marriages

**Ivan III-** under his rule, the principality of Moscow was born. He also annexed other Russian principalities and ended Mongol rule in Russia


 * Constantinople and 1453- ** Constantinople, the capitol of the byzantine empire, was captured by the ottoman empires in 1453

**John Wycliff-** said that the Bible should be a Christian’s sole authority and not the pope

**John Hus-** urged the elimination of the worldliness and corruption of the clergy and attacked excessive power of the papacy within the Catholic Church. He was condemned as a heretic and burned at the stake

**Pius II’s //Execrabilis-//** condemned appeals to a council over the head of the pope as heretical. This resulted in the popes reasserting their supremacy over the catholic church

**Renaissance popes-** used bloodshed, intrigue, and nepotism to gain power. They were no longer over the temporal authority. they were also great patrons of Renaissance culture

__**Chapter 13**__

__**Christian Humanism-**__an intellectual movement in northern Europe in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries that combined the interest in the classics of the Italian Renaissance with an interest in the sources of early Christianity, including the New Testament and the writings of the church fathers.

__**Desiderius** Erasmus-__Most influential of all Christian humanists, formulated and popularized the reform program of christian humanism, wrote the handbook of the christian knight and the praise of folly, philosophy of Christ

__**//The Praise of//** Folly-__Erasmus engaged in humorous yet effective criticism of the most corrupt practices of his own society, harsh on abuses within clergy

__**Thomas More**-__Took an interest in new classical learning and became proficient in latin and greek, started public career that got him the highest reach of power as lord chancellor of england, friend of erasmus, wrote utopia, killed when opposed break in church due to King Henry VIIIs divorce request

__**Utopia**__//-//written by thomas more, account of idealistic life and institutions of the community, means nowhere

__**Pluralism-**__ the practice of holding several church offices simultaneously; a problem of the late medieval church.

__**Absenteeism**-__church officeholders ignoring their duties and hiring underlings who were not always qualified

__**Thomas a Kempis’ //Imitation of//**__ **Christ-**written by thomas a kempis, judged by what we have read and done, not spoken or religiously lived

__**Oratory of Divine** Love-__informal group of clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform by emphasizing personal spiritual development and outward acts of charity, favored philosophy of Christ

__**The sacraments-**__ rites considered imperative for a Christian's salvation. By the thirteenth century, these consisted of the Eucharist or Lord's Supper, baptism, marriage, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and confirmation of children; Protestant reforms of the sixteenth century generally recognized only two-baptism and communion (the Lord's Supper).

__**Martin Luther**-__monk who was never assured of his salvation, became a doctor in theology, started concept of justification by faith, led the protestant reformation

__**Salvation by faith-t**__he doctrine that true salvation comes from faith not good works

__**Priesthood of all believers**__-Luther's concept that a special class of priest not needed to intercede for you

__**Johann Tetzel-**__Rambunctious dominican who said, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs."

__**Indulgences-**__ in Christian theology, the remission of part or all of the temporal punishment in purgatory due to sin; granted for charitable contributions and other good deeds. Indulgences became a regular practice of the Christian church in the High Middle Ages, and their abuse was instrumental in sparking Luther's reform movement in the sixteenth century.

__**Ninety-Five Theses-**__indictment of the abuses in the sales of indulgences that luther wrote and nailed to the door of the church

__**The Edict of Worms-**__Martin Luther made an outlaw, his works were to be burned, and he was to be captured and delivered to emperor charles, but his prince hid him

__**The Peasant’s War, 1524-**__Peasants rose up against their lords after being abused and taxed and experiencing social discontent, followed Luthers idea of rebellion, Luther was against the peasants

__**Transubstantiation-**__ a doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church that during the Eucharist, the substance of the bread and wine is miraculously transformed into the body and blood of Jesus.

__**Charles V-**__king of spain, grandson of emperor maximilian, elected holy roman emperor, catholic

__**Pope Clement VII-**__joined side of Francis I in the second Habsburg-Valois war

__**Suleiman the Magnificent-**__ruler of the ottoman forces

__**Peace of Augsburg**__-End to religious warfare in Germany, turning point in the reformation, division of Christianity acknowledged, each ruler can determine the religion of his territory

__**Gustavus Vasa-**__led swedish barons to overthrow christian ii, ruler of three scandinavian kingdoms, king of sweden, established lutheran reformation in his country

__**Ulrich Zwingli-**__began the reformation in Switzerland, believed, marburg colloquy, unable to reconcile with luther, didn't believe in transubstantiation

__**Marburg Colloquy-**__meeting between luther and zwingli, agreed on everything except Lord's supper, creation of different protestant groups

__**Anabaptists**__-radicals who believed that the church was an association of believers who underwent spiritual rebirth and had been baptized into the church, adult baptism, tried to return to early christianity, all believers equal, all christians considered priests

__**Munster**__-Site of an anabaptist uprising that determined the fate of Dutch anabaptism, became a haven for for anabaptists, New Jerusalem

__**Menno Simons-**__responsible for reviving dutch anabaptism, imposed strict discipline, banned those who refused to conform to the rules, believed in a peaceful, evangelical anabaptism that stressed separation from the world, followers mennonites

__**Henry VIII’s wives-**__Catherine of Aragon-divorced-daughter Mary I, Anne Boleyn-beheaded-Elizabeth I, Jane Seymore-Edward VI-died, Anne of Cleves-divorced, Catherine Howard-beheaded, Catherine Parr-survives

__**Act of Supremacy-**__Made Queen Elizabeth head of church, able to dictate religious policy

__**Book of Common Prayer**__-Prayer book and liturgical guide that allowed clergy to marry, elimination of images, revised protestant liturgy

__**Edward VI**__-son of henry VIII and Jane Seymore, king of England as an infant, moved church in protestant direction

__**“Bloody” Mary**__-Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon who became queen of England and tried to restore catholicism, married to Philip II King of Spain, burned more than 300 protestants, death ended restoration of catholicism in england

__**John Calvin-**__systemic theologian and organizer of the protestant movement, Institutes of the Christian Religion, predestination

__**Predestination-**__ the belief, associated with Calvinism, that God, as a consequence of his foreknowledge of all events, has predetermined those who will be saved (the elect) and those who will be damned.

__**Geneva-**__Calvin set up a theocracy here, vibrant center of Protestantism

__**Protestant education-l**__iterature more important to read the bible, all children should be educated, divided into private and public school

__**Puritans-**__ English Protestans inspired by Calvinist theology who wished to remove all traces of Catholicism from the Church of England

__**Catholic Reformation-**__revival of roman catholicism where the church had a reformed papacy and strengthened church

__**Saint Theresa of Avila-**__Spanish mystic who was a nun that believed that experiencing a variety of mystical experiences should lead to an active life of service on behalf of catholicism

__**Ignatius of Loyola-**__Spanish nobleman who founded the Society of Jesus, submitted his will to the will of church, soldier of God, The Spiritual Exercises, principles of absolute obedience to the papacy, hierarchal order, education, dedication to engage in conflict for God, 1st general of the order of the Society of Jesus

__**Jesuits-**__pursued 3 major activities, established highly disciplined schools, borrowed freely from humanist schools for their educational methods, education important, famous educators, propagation of the catholic faith among non christians

__**Francis of Xavier**__-one of the original jesuit members, brought catholic christianity to the east, died spreading the faith

__**Pope Paul III-**__continued renaissance practices, choosing nephews, involving himself in politics, patronized arts and letters lavishly, appointed a reform commission, recognized the jesuits, summoned the council of trent, re-established the roman inquisition

__**Council of Trent-**__Met intermittently between 1545 and 1563, made Divisions between moderates and conservatives, Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings: Scripture and tradition were equal on religious issues, only the catholic church could interpret scripture. faith and good works were necessary for salvation, 7 sacraments, transubstantiation-affirmed this belief, reaffirmed belief in clerical celibacy, purgatory, efficacy of indulgences (no selling), established seminaries in each dioceses for the training of priests

__**Huguenots-**__ French Calvinists.

__**Saint Bartholomew’s Day-**__King Henry IX ordered the massacre of huguenots under influence of the guise family, about 3000 huguenots were killed

__**Henry IV-**__Henry of Navarre, survived the massacre by converting to catholic, converted back to calvinism, claimed throne of England when henry iii was killed, converted to catholicism

__**Edict of Nantes-e**__stablished catholicism as the official religion of france but allowed religious toleration

__**Philip** II-__greatest advocate of militant catholicism, king of spain, wanted to consolidate the land and increase his power, strict catholicism

__**The Battle of Leptano-Spain's leadership of a holy league against Turk encroachments resulted in this victory over the turks**__

__**The New World-**__Strict conformity to Catholicism, enforced by aggressive use of the spanish inquisition and the establishment of strong, monarchial authority

__**The Netherlands-**__consisted of 17 provinces, split into 2 provinces based on religion: Southern Catholic provinces of Netherlands form Union of Arras, Northern Protestant provinces for union of utrecht under william of orange; united provinces of the netherlands will become dutch republic

__**Union of Utrecht-**__northern protestant provinces of the netherlands, led by william of orange, would become the dutch republic

__**Elizabeth**__-queen of england, her reign known as the golden age of england, ruled with compromise and moderation

__**Spanish Armada-**__Phillip sends ships to the netherlands to pick up troops and invade england to re-establish catholic monarchy, fail

**__Chapter 14__**
__**Prestor John**-__ fictional character who attracted Europeans to foreign lands with his magical Christian kingdom in Africa


 * __The Travels of John Mandeville__**- fantasy literature about realms filled with precious stones and gold, also attracted Europeans to foreign lands


 * __Marco Polo__**- one of the most famous medieval travelers to the east, son of merchant Niccolo of Venice, experiences documented in the//Travels//- most informative of all descriptions of Asia, Christopher Columbus had this book when he began his voyage across the Atlantic Ocean

__“God, gold and glory”__- primary motives of European expansion

__Portolani__- charts made by medieval navigators and mathematicians in the 13th and 14th century, drawn on a flat scale, took no account of the earth's curvature

__Ptolomy’s Geography__- book containing his world map, showed the world as spherical with 3 major land masses- Europe, Asia, and Africa- and 2 oceans, oceans were smaller than landmasses, he underestimated the earth's circumference

__Lateen sails and square rigs__- allowed for the construction of ships mobile enough to sail against the wind and engage in naval warfare and also large enough to mount heavy canons and carry substantial amounts of goods over long distances

__Compass and astrolabe__- navigational aids, ascertain latitude below equator without using the Pole Star

__Prince Henry the Navigator__- motivated for overseas voyage by his religious zeal- "to make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and to bring him all the should that should be saved"

__The Gold Coast__- Portuguese discovered a new source of gold along the southern coast of the hump of West Africa

__Bartholomew Dias__- Portuguese sea captain who rounded the Cape of Good Hope but feared mutiny from his crew and returned

__Vasco da Gama__- Portuguese sea captain who rounded the Cape of Good Hope and stopped at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants along the coast of East Africa, reached the port of Calicut where he announced that he had come in search of " Christians and spices", he did not find Christians but loaded his ships with greatly profitable spices like ginger and cinnamon back to Europe

__Calicut__- a port on the southwestern coast of India where Vasco da Gama found plentiful spices that he loaded his vessels with and returned to Europe

__Alfonso de Albuquerque__- admiral who set up port facilities at Goa- became the headquarters for Portuguese operations throughout the entire region, wanted to gain control of Malacca to destroy the Arab spice trade and provide Portuguese with a way station on the route to the Spice Islands

__Malacca__- harbor on the Malay peninsula, had been transformed by the Muslim rulers into a thriving port and a major stopping point for the spice trade

__Spice Islands__- control over Malacca meant control over Moluccas, rulers wanted to gain control of this region because spice trade was so profitable

__Christopher Columbus__- Italian who was convinced the circumference of the earth was less and Asia was larger than previously thought, felt that Asia could be reached by sailing west instead of around Africa, persuaded Queen Isabella of Spain to finance his exploratory expedition, three ships: //Santa María, Niña, Pinta, and a crew of 90 men set sail on August 3, 1492,// assured the king and queen that he would find gold and convert the natives whom he called "Indians", landed on all the major islands of the Caribbean and the mainland of Central America, died believing he had reached the Indies in Asia

__John Cabot__- Venetian sea man who explored the New England coastline of the Americas under a license of King Henry VII of England

__Vasco Nuñez de Balboa__- Spanish explorer who led an expedition across the Isthmus of Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean in 1513

__Ferdinand Magellan__- after passing through the Magellan Strait, he reached the Philippines, where he was killed by natives, one of his five ships returned to Spain, first circumnavigation of the earth

__Treaty of Tordasillas__- divided up the new world into separate Portuguese and Spanish spheres of influence, most of South America fell within the Spanish sphere, the route east around Cape of Good Hope was reserved for the Portuguese, the route across the Atlantic was assigned to Spain

__Hernan Cortes__- leader of a Spanish expedition, he marched to the city of Tenochtitlán, made alliances with city-states that were tired of Aztec rule, thought to be a representative of a god, given gold and a palace, captured Moctezuma, driven out by the local population, returned to find the city filled with corpses of those that died from European diseases

__Moctazuma__- Aztec monarch who thought that Hernan Cortes was a representative of a god and gave him gold and a palace, Cortes held him hostage

__Aztecs__- began a long migration and ended up in the Valley of Mexico, est. their capitol at Tenochtitlán, constructed temples, public buildings, and houses, and causeways of stone, they built an aqueduct to bring fresh water from a spring 4 miles away, outstanding warriors, a collection of independent territories governed by local lords, payments of tribute to the Aztec ruler

__Tenochititlan__- capitol of the Aztecs

__The Incas__- small community in Cuzco, under their leader they launched a campaign of conquest that brought the entire region under their control, centralized state, Cuzco was the capitol, transformed from a city of mud and thatch into a city of stone, //Inca// means "ruler", they were great builders

__Pachakuti__- ruled the Inca, created a highly centralized state, divided his realm into four quarters each ruled by a governor, at the top was the emperor who was believed to be descended from the sun god

__Francisco Pizarro__- landed his expedition on the Pacific coast of South America with a band of about 180 men, possessed steal weapons, gunpowder, and horses, captured the Incan capital, est. a capital at Lima for a new colony of Spanish Empire

__Encomienda__- an economic and social system that permitted the conquering Spaniards to collect tribute from the natives and use them as laborers, holders were supposed to protect the indians, pay them wages, and supervise their spiritual needs

__Viceroy__- served as the king's chief civil and military officer and was aided by audiencias

__Audiencias__- advisory groups that also functioned as supreme judicial bodies

__Boers__- Dutch farmers

__Capetown__- boers settled this area because its moderate climate and freedom from tropical diseases

__Slave trade__- removed from their homes and shipped around the world, European merchant ships carried goods to Africa, traded for slaves, slaves shipped to America and were sold

__Middle passage__- the journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas, the middle leg of the triangular trade

__Triangular trade__- route connecting Europe, Africa, and the American continent that characterized the new Atlantic economy

__“sugar factories”__- Portuguese set up plantations worked by African laborers, growing cane sugar demanded skill and large labor quantities, sugar plantations in the Caribbeans, produced tons of sugar a year at the expense of a high death rate from brutal treatment of slaves

**__Dutch East India Factory__ - Trading company established in 1602 by government, Set up a settlement in southern Africa at Cape of Good Hope, established pepper plantations on java, source of great profit for amsterdam dutch merchants **

**__Batavia-__ On Java island, fort Batavia (Jakarta), Dutch brought inland regions under their control to protect their position, on java and neighboring sumatra, the dutch east india company established pepper plantations, source of great profit for amsterdam dutch merchants, by end of 18th c, dutch had almost all of indonesian archipelago under its control **

**__Mughal Empire -__ founders were not native indians, came from mountainous region north of ganges river valley, babur founded the dynasty, father descendant of great asian conqueror Tamerlane, mother descendant of mongol conqueror Genghis Khan, Akbar was babur’s grandson brought mughal rule to most of india, Created the greatest indian empire since the mauryan dynasty nearly 2000 years before **

**__British East India Company-__ got authority to collect taxes from lands in calcutta area, [|British][|joint stock company] formed for pursuing trade with the [|East Indies] but ended up trading mainly with the [|Indian subcontinent] **

**__Robert Clive -__ french captured british fort at madras, saved by this military genius, Aggressive British empire, builder who became chief representative of East India Company in India, Founded joint-stock company 1600, Consolidated British control in Bengal, In 1757 3000 british defeated mughal, led army in battle of plassey **

**__“Black Hole of Calcutta”-__ Local Indian ruler attacked fort william and imprisoned local british population in this underground prison **

**__Ming and Qing Dynasties-__ when the portuguese arrived, the ming dynasty had ruled from 1369 to 1644, New era of greatness in chinese history, china extended rule in mongolia and central asia under these strong rulers, reconquered vietnam, strengthened great wall, made peace with nomadic tribesmen who had troubled china for centuries, last ming emperor killed himself by hanging himself from tree in the palace gardens, overthrown by manchus (farming hunting people) who created new Qing dynasty, Strong early rulers, pacified country, corrected social & economic ills, restored peace & prosperity, 2 monarchs Kangxi & Qianlong ruled china for over a century from mid 17th c to end of 18th c, responsible for much of manchu china’s greatness **

**__Lord Macertney-__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">led a british mission to visit Beijing and press for liberalization of trade restrictions, compared the chinese empire to old, crazy, first rate man of war that once awed neighbors merely by bulk and appearance-now destined under incompetent leadership to be dashed to pieces on the shore **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Emperor Qianlong-__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">monarch that ruled china along with kangxi for over a century from mid 17th c to end of 18th c, responsible for much of manchu china’s greatness, had no interest in british products **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Tokugawa shoguns-__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Tokugawa Ieyasu made himself shogun general in 1603, act that initiated most powerful and longest lasting of all Japanese shoguns, tokugawa rulers completed restoration of central authority and remained in power until 1868 **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Nagasaki and the Dutch__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">Japanese government closed 2 major foreign trading posts on islands of hirado and nagasaki, only small dutch community in nagasaki allowed to remain in japan, dutch unlike spanish and portuguese didn’t allow missionary activity to interfere with their trade interests, conditions for staying were strict, dutch ships allowed to dock at nagasaki harbor once a year and could remain for only 2 or 3 months **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Britain’s Navigation Acts-__ <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">regulated what could be taken from and sold to the colonies, supposed to provide balance of trade favorable to the mother country **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Samuel de Champlain__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">1608 established settlement at quebec, canada as french took more interest **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__The asiento__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">privilege granted to britain from spain to transport 4500 slaves a year to spanish latin america **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Inflation__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">major economic problem in 16th and 17th centuries, price revolution was europe wide, prices greatly increased in europe **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Joint-stock trading companies__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">a company or association that raises capital by selling shares to individuals who receive dividends on their investment while a board of directors runs the company **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__House of Fugger__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">in exchange for arranging large loans to charles v, jacob fugger given monopoly over silver, copper, mercury mines in hapsburg possessions of central europe that produced over 50% profits per year, went bankrupt at end of 16th century when the habsburgs defaulted on their loans **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Mercantilism__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">an economic theory that held that a nation's prosperity depended on its supply of gold and silver and that the total volume of trade is unchangeable; its adherents therefore advocated that the government play an active role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Mestizos and mulattos__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">offspring of <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">europeans and native american indians, offsprings of africans and whites **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__The Columbian Exchange__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">- <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">reciprocal importation and exportation of plants and animals between europe and americas **

**<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #000000; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">__Geradus Mercator-flemish cartographer,__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">made the Mercator Projection <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">( <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arial; font-size: 15px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">conformal projection, tries to show the true shape of landmasses in a limited area, shapes of lands near the equator accurate, farther away they lie, more exaggerated their size becomes, valuable to ship captains, every straight line=line of true direction) **

__**Chapter 15**__
“divine right”- kings received their power from God, their authority was absolute, responsible only to God
 * Witches-** increased number of trials and executions of the presumed, many prosecuted throughout Europe, accused to due religious uncertainties and social conditions, women mainly accused
 * Thirty Year’s War**- Catholicism (Habsburg) v. Calvinism (Bohemia), fought on Germanic lands, conflict of leadership between the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Habsburg dynasties of Spain and the HRE, divided HRE, social and economic effects debated, lasted 30 years (1618-1648)
 * Gustavus Adolphus-** king of sweden; responsible for turning it into a world power, responsible for reviving Sweden and turning it into a great Baltic power, military genius, devout Lutheran, killed in the Battle of Lützen
 * Peace of Westphalia-** ended war in Germany, ensured that all German states were free to determine own religion, recognized Calvinism as a religion, made it clear that religion and politics were separate
 * Conscript standing armies-** gave military flexibility, were first established by Adolphus
 * Absolutism-** sovereign power or ultimate authority in the state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by diving right
 * Bishop Jacques Bossuet-** one of the chief theorists of divine-right monarchy, French theologian and court preacher, argued that government was divinely ordained so that humans could live in an organized society, believed God would hold a king accountable for his actions, ideas expressed in his book Politics Drawn form the Very Words of Holy Scripture
 * Cardinal Richelieu-** Louis XIII's chief minster, weakens Huguenots and nobles, eliminates their political and military rights, sent out intendants (royal officials)
 * Cardinal Mazarin-** Richelieu's trained successor, dominated French government, Louis XIV's advisor
 * The Fronde-** noble revolt, revolt against Mazarin, challenged absolutism
 * Louis XIV-** became king at age 4, created court of Versailles, called himself the Sun King, high nobles were greatest threat to his rule, issued Edict of Fontainebleau, pro army of 100000 in peacetime, 400000 in time of war, waged four wars between 1667-1713
 * Edict of Fontainebleau-** issued by King Louis XIV, destroyed Huguenot churches, closed Protestant schools
 * Versailles-** court created by King Louis XIV, forced home of high nobles by King Louis to control them
 * Jean-Baptist Colbert-** King Louis XIV's controller general of finances, adhered to mercantilism
 * Louis XIV’s wars-** pro army of 100000 men in peacetime and 400000 in time of war, 4 wars between 1667-1713
 * Peace of Utrecht-** ended Spanish war, confirmed Phillip V as spanish ruler
 * Brandenburg-Prussia-** dominions of the house of hohenzollern, consisted of three disconnected masses in western, central, and eastern Germany, founded by frederick william the great elector
 * Frederick William the Great Elector- laid foundation for the Prussian state, built a competent and efficient standing army, established the general war commissariat**
 * The Hohenzollerns- ruled northeastern germany, received brandenburg-prussia**
 * Treaty of Karlowitz- Austria estabished empire in southeastern europe**
 * The Romanovs- michael romanov (tsar) began dynasty**
 * Russian serfdom- desirable to the landowners because there was an abundance of land and a shortage of peasants**
 * The Orthodox Church- unsettled conditions created by merchant and peasant revolts**
 * Peter the Great- positive impact of firearms on women, "opens a window to the west", reorganized central government, sought to gain state control of the russian orthodox church, attacks sweden, battle of Narva and great northern war, made saint petersburg new capital of russia**
 * Saint Petersburg- peter the great made new capital of russia, symbol russia was looking westward to europe**
 * Great Northern War- russia against sweden, led by peter the great, sweden became a second-rate power**
 * Vienna and the Ottoman Empire- european power, ruled by sultan suleiman I the magnificent, turks attempted to conquer ___**
 * Poland’s Sejm- poland diet, two-chamber assembly in which landowners completely dominated the few townspeople and lawyers who were also members**
 * The House of Orange- began with william of orange and his heirs, occupied stadholderate, favored a centralized government with themselves as hereditary monarchs, opposed by the states general**
 * Amsterdam- replaced antwerp as the financial and commercial capital of europe**
 * The Stuarts- after death of queen elizabeth, tudor dynasty became extinct, began with inauguration of James I of england**
 * Puritans- protestants in anglican church inspired by Calvinists theology who wanted to eliminate catholics from the church of england**
 * English Civil War- parliament versus king of england, King charles I was captured, parliament proved victorious, new model army, military reports by oliver cromwell**
 * Oliver Cromwell- reported on english civil war, new model army, lord protector, dissolves parliament, divided country into eleven regions**
 * Levellers- opposed cromwell, called for annual parliaments**
 * The Restoration- Charles II returned to england after eleven years of exile, issued the declaration of indulgence which suspended laws that parliament had passed against catholics and puritans, parliament passed test acts**
 * Test Act- only anglicans could hold military and civil office**
 * James II- catholic; tried to institute catholic reforms, new declaration of indulgence, protestant daughters mary and anne, catholic son**
 * Glorious Revolution- william of orange and wife were invited to invade england, wife and son fled to france, as a result, william and mary became monarchs**
 * Thomas Hobbes- writes leviathan, people form a commonwealth,** **subjects may not rebel**
 * John Locke- two treatises of government, inalienable rights to life, liberty, and property, people and sovereign form a government**
 * Bill of Rights- affirmed parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to opposed or do without parliament**
 * Manerism- style of art, elongated and contorted figures, el greco**
 * El Greco- mannerism artist, theotocopoulos, moved** **to spain**
 * Bernini- italian architect and sculptor, baroque, throne of saint peter**
 * Gentileschi- baroque, judith beheading holofernes**
 * Baroque- style of art, dramatic effects to arouse the emotions**
 * French Classicism- france replaced italy as the cultural leader of europe, emphasis on clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmony of design**
 * Rembrandt van Rijn- dutch realist, syndics of the cloth guild, realistic portrayals of secular everyday life**
 * William Shakespere- his plays performed in the glove theatre, actor and shareholder in chief company of the time, the lord chamberlains company**
 * Lope de Vega- set the agenda for playwrights, prolific writer, wrote to please audience**
 * Racine- theme and plot from classical greek and roman sources, Phedre, focused on conflicts that characterized and revealed tragic dimensions of life**
 * Moliere- enjoyed favor of french court and benefitted from patronage of king louis XIV, Tartruffe, ridiculed religious hypocrisy**

**__Chapter 16__**
“God’s Handiwork"- scientists took an interest in the world around them

“natural philosophers”- medieval scientists who preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world

alchemy and hermetic magic- fused into a single intellectual framework

Ptolemaic universe- geocentric conception, finite

Aristotle- circular planetary movement, added to synthesis of the cosmological view along with ptolemy and christian theology

Geocentric conception- universe was seen as a series of 10 concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless earth at its center

The Empyrean Heaven- beyond tenth sphere in geocentric conception, location of God and all saved souls

Epicycles- concentric spheres within spheres in geocentric conception

Nicolaus Copernicus- created doubts about Ptolemaic system, //On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres//, heliocentric theory, CONDEMNED BY CATHOLIC CHURCH

//On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres-// by Copernicus, for fear of ridicule from fellow astronomers he did not publish until before his death

Heliocentric theory- the universe consisted of 8 spheres with the sun motionless at the center & the sphere of the fixed stars at rest in the eighth sphere

Tycho Brahe- detailed record of observations of the positions and movements of the stars and planets, rejected Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system

Johannes Kepler- Hermetic mathematical magic, discovering "music of the spheres", laws of planetary motions, ELLIPTICAL ORBIT, DISCREDITS PTOLEMY

Three laws of planetary motion- movement of planets around the sun was elliptical and sun not at center, planets speed is greater when closer to sun, planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits

Galileo Galileo- inertia, telescope, //The Starry Messenger//, Catholic Church ordered him to reject copernican thesis, //Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican//

The Starry Messenger- Galileo revealed himself as a firm proponent of Copernicus's heliocentric system

//Dialogue of the Two Chief World Systems-// by Galileo, Italian instead of Latin; dialogue between Simplicio, Sagredo & Salviti; defense of the Coprecian system

The Inquisition- Holy office of Catholic Church, condemned Copernicus

Isaac Newton- Cambridge University, invented calculus, law of universal gravitation, chair in mathematics, //Principia//, world-machine

//Principia-// Isaac Newton's book; Universal Law of Gravitation & Three Laws of motion, "the hinge point of modern scientific thought"

Three laws of motion- 1. An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, 2. Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object), 3.For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action.

Universal law of gravitation- all objects of mass produce gravity, and are capable of attracting one another through these gravitational pulls.

Galen- dominated medieval medicine, four bodily humors, anatomy, physiology, and disease

Four bodily humors- doctrine by Galen, blood, yellow bile, phlegm, black bile, disease caused by imbalance of humors

Paracelsus- corrects Galen's errors//, dissension of the human body,// rely on observation and experiment, FATHER OF MODERN MEDICINE

“new drugs”- recognized by Paracelsus, made him father of modern medicine, along with concept of disease

Andreas Vesalius- corrected some of Galen's most glaring errors, //on the fabric of the human body//, anatomy, dissected human body

//On the Fabric of the Human Body-// by Vesalius, based on Paduan lectures, deviated from tradition by personally dissecting a body

William Harvey- //on the motion of the heart and blood, circulation of blood//

//On the Motion of the Heart and Blood-// by Harvey, circulation of the blood, observations and experiments

Robert Boyle- first to conduct controlled experiments, Boyle's law - volume of gas varies with pressure, believes in different shapes and sizes of elements and not of same matter (major part of Chemistry)

Antoine Lavoisier- made a system in naming elements, demonstrated fundamental rules of chemical combination, founder of modern chemistry, helped by wife - Marie-Anne

Margaret Cavendish- one of the most prominent female scientists, participant of crucial scientific debates, excluded from membership of Royal Society, attacked defects of rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge, also believed in humans as masters of nature.

Maria Sibylla Merian- important entomologist through detailed illustrations of insects and plants, reproductive and evelopmental cycles of Surinam insect life

Maria Winkelmann- female astronomer in Germany, assistant of husband, discovered undiscovered comet, denied post of Berlin Academy because of being a woman.

//Querelles des femmes- arguments about women,// women being inferior of men: "proven" through science and scripture, women rise up in defense: feminism

Rene Descartes- Cartesian Dualism, //discourse on method,// concepts started from doubt started confusion and ended in philosophy, father of modern rationalism

//Discourse on Method- written by Descartes,// outlines of new mathematical-rationalist system with new commitment to mind, mathematics, and mechanical universe. Started with the doubt of his own existence

“I think therefore I am”- Descartes, Whatever reason said was true exists, in Discourse on Method, proof in itself

Descartes’ deductive method- start with self-evident truths then deduce to complex conclusions, each step of argument must be sharp and well founded like a mathematical proof, form logical conclusions

Francis Bacon- formed new method of acquiring knowledge, rejected Copernicus and Kepler, more support for increase of industry

Scientific Method- method of acquiring knowledge, how something works and why it happened, through inductive principles, empiricism

Francis Bacon’s inductive method- empiricism, from particular to general, scientific method, form correct generalizations through organized experiments and systematic observations, rejected copernicus and kepler, misunderstood Galileo

“to conquer nature in action”- Bacon, control and domination of nature as central proposition of modern science, technology, "human power"

Benidict de Spinoza’s pantheism- monism, God was the universe and nothing is separate from God

//Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner- Spinoza,// pantheism, published until after death, human beings were part of God or nature, failure of understanding God because of misunderstanding of human emotions and finding reason of existence: find understanding all to find happiness

Blaise Pascal- keep science and religion united, had a mystical vision, tried to convert rationalists to christianity, appealed to reason and emotion, invented calculating machine, theory of chance or probability, relied more on religion

//Pensees- (Thoughts)// "apology" for the Christian religion, appealing to reason and emotions for conversion

English Royal Society- little government encouragement, co-opted new members, informal gatherings of scientists, technological improvements for industry

French Royal Academy of Sciences- Paris, recognized by Louis XIV, government and state control and support, members appointed and paid salaries by state, only worked to benefit king and state: limited

//Journal des Savants-// French journal of concept of cooperation in science. published weekly, printed results of experiments and general scientific knowledge, appeal to scientists and educated public

//Philosophical Transactions-// Royal Society, papers of members and learned correspondence, direct to practicing scientists, scholarly journals

**__Chapter 17__**
"science of man" : social sciences 2. Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations : father of modern capitalism, attack on mercantilism, free trade, labor 3. Addison and Steele's Spectator : wished to instruct and entertain, strong appeal to women, praised family 4. Antoine Watteau : rococo artist, lyrical views of aristocratic life, upperclass joy with sad interior 5. Balthazar Neuman : rococo architect, secular and spiritual 6. Baron d'Holbach : system on nature, everything in the universe consisted of matter in motion, humans were machines 7. Carnival : time of great indulgence leading up to the beginning of lent 8. Cesare Beccaria : get rid of torture as a punishment 9. Chapbooks : printed on cheap paper, short brochures sold by itinerant peddlers to the lower classes 10. Condorcet : french philosophe, the progress of the human mind, humans enter tenth stage of perfection 11. David Hume : treatise on human nature, observation and reflection made conceivable the "science of man" 12. Deism : belief in God as the creator of the universe who, after setting it in motion, ceased to have any direct involvement in it and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws 13. Denis Diderot's Encyclopedia : 28 volumes, attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration, drastic price reduction increased sales 14. Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire : growth of christianity was a major reason for Rome's eventual collapse 15. Emile : by Rousseau, important work on education 16. Essay Concerning Human Understanding : John Locke, tabula rasa, knowledge from environment, form new, better society with reason 17. Fontenelle's Plurality of Worlds : conversation between a lady and her lover about cosmology and basic fundamentals of new 18. Francois Quesnay : leader of physiocrats, French physician 19. Franz Joseph Hyden : 104 symphonies, string quartets, concerti, songs, oratorios, and masses 20. George Frederick Handel : fireworks music, more than 40 operas, messiah, religious music, 21. Gin : cheap, classic sign in English taverns 22. Henry Fielding's History of Tom Jones, a Foundling : people without scruples who survived by their wits, attacks hypocrisy 23. Immanuel Kant : described Enlightenment as "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity" motto: "Dare to know" 24. Jacques-Louis David : oath of horatti, classical elements 25. James Cook's Travels : findings of Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia, sparked interest in foreign lands and cultures 26. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's The Social Contract : tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority 27. Johann Sebastian Bach : mass in b minor, saint matthew's passion, cantatas and motets 28. John Locke's Tabula Rasa : blank mind/state, environment and experiences responsible for human character 29. John Wesley and Methodism : deep spiritual crisis and mystical experience, concerned with salvation, sought to keep methodism within the Anglican church 30. Joseph II's Toleration Patent : recognized catholicism's public practice, granted other religions the right to worship privately 31. Laissez-faire : government should not interfere with economy 32. Marie-Therese de Geoffrin : salon keeper, work in secret 33. Mary Astell's A Serious Proposal to the Ladies : better education and equality in marriage 34. Mary Wollstonecraft : founder of modern European feminism, vindication of the rights of woman 35. Montesquieu's The Spirit of the Laws : scientific method to ascertain natural laws to govern social relationships, treatise a comparative study of governments: republics, monarchies, despotism 36. Neoclassicism : a late-eighteenth-century artistic movement that emerged in France. It sought to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the Classical style of ancient Greece and Rome. 37. Newspapers and libraries : relatively cheap and were provided free in coffeehouses, wider circulation through the development of libraries 38. Philosophes : intellectuals of the Enlightenment, mostly social reformers, cosmopolitan movement 39. Physiocrats : founders of the modern discipline of economics, critical of mercantilism, natural economic laws, land constituted the only source of wealth 40. Pierre Bayle : leading critic of traditional religious attitudes: superstition, religious intolerance, dogmatism 41. Pietism and Moravian Brethren : response to the desire for a deeper personal devotion to God, personal experience of God in one's life that constituted true religious experience 42. Realschule and Volkschulen : schools 43. Reason : main of Enlightenment, advocating application of scientific method in understanding life, rational system of thought 44. Rococo : art which emphasized grace and gentle action 45. Samuel Richardson's Pamela : virtue is rewarded, won him a large audience, appealed to growing cult of sensibility 46. The General will : Rousseau, represented a community's highes aspirations 47. The salon and the coffeehouse : where intellectuals exchanged ideas 48. Vindication of the Rights of Women : by Wollstonecraft, subjection of women to men was wrong 49. Voltaire's Treatise on Toleration : religious toleration and equality of men, "Crush the infamous thing": religious fanaticism, intolerance, and superstition 50. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart : first harpsichord performance at six, first opera at twelve, the marriage of figaro, don giovanni, the magic flute

Chapter 18
__**Enlightened absolutism**__-monarchs followed the advice of philosophes and ruled by enlightened principles such as natural rights, establishing a path to modern nationhood

__**Lou****is**__ **__XV__**-reign had bigger debt and higher taxes, ruled alone, laxy and weak, influenced by his many ministers and mistresses

__**Cardinal Fleury**__ - replaced the duke of Orleans as king's minister. Pulled away from foreign adventures because commerce and trade expanded so the government promoted growth of industry

__**Madame de Pompadour**__ - the most influential mistress of Louis XV, gained wealth and power, made important government decisions and gave advice on appointments and foreign policy

__** Louis XVI- **__ did not have the energy for state affairs. married to Marie Antoinette, underwent financial crisis

__**Marie Antoinette**__ - spoiled Austrian princess always involved wtih court intrigues

__**The United Kingdom**__ - 1707 government united England and Scotland, British refers to Brits and Scots

__**“pocket boroughs”**__ - many pieces of small lands or boroughs controlled by one person, support through patronage and bribery ("in the pocket")

__**The Hanoverians / the Georges**__ - After the Stuarts, no sudden heir so given tot he Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover, did not understand the BRitish system so allowed Parliament to take control, later developing the modern cabinet system in British government

__**Robert Walpol**__e - first prime minister under Hanoverians, pursued peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes

__**“Wilkes and Liberty”**__-slogan used to give the common people of London the right to vote

__**William Pitt the Elder**__ - furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada and India in Seven Years' War, George III replaced him with Lord Burt.

__**Patriots vs. Orangists**__ - regents wanted to reduce power of Organists, and the Patriots (dutch burghers) wanted to open up municipal councils than the oligarchs. Patriots started to interfere with foreign interference and later crushed because the Prussian king wanted to protect his sister who is the wife of the Organist stadholder. Orangists and regents later reestablished old system

__**Frederick William I**__ - established the General Directory, ensured close bond between the nobility and army, junkers played a big role

__**Junkers**__ - nobility or landed aristocracy

__**“Prussian Militarism”**__ - extreme exaltation of military virtues

__**Frederick II the Grea****t**__ - had the philosophe Voltaire tutor him at court, eliminate the use of torture except in cases of murder or treason made Prussia one of Europe's great power, enlarged the army and use it in foreign policy disputes

__**“the first servant of the**__ **state”** - Frederick William I, utter and complete devotion to the servitude of the king and state

__**Maria** **Theresa**__ - conservative and not open to wider reform calls of philosophes, wanted Silesia back after War of Austrian Succession

__**Joseph**__ **II**-all his subjects were equal before the law, most enlightened ruler, though his reforms were relatively short-lived and put him in conflict with the Austrian nobility

__**Catherine II the Great**__ - husband Peter III murdered by a faction of nobles, new law code, divided Russia into fifty providences, attempted to reform the society but had to keep support from Palace Guard

__**Serfs**__-peasants who worked the land, were not owned but lived on the land

__**Emelyn Pugachev**__ - rebellion led Catherine the Great to make a philosophical break from her Enlightenment ideals, support from peasants and seized many landlords' estates, died down when government became effective, later executed

__**Partitions of Poland**__- Prussia, Austria, and Russia

__**War of Austrian Succession**__ - involved most of the powers of Europe over the question of Maria Theresa's succession to the realms of House of Habsburg, Prussia seized Silesia

__**Silesia**__ - land that Austria and Prussia were in conflict over, Prussia finally got to keep this land after Seven Years War

__**Robert Clive**__ - controlled the British in India

__**Seven Years’ War**__ -led to the weakening of the French; made Britain a world power, Diplomatic revolution, battle of rossbach, british capture of forts duquesne and louisbourg, (french indian war), peace of hubertusburg and treaty of paris, believed to be the first world war

__**French-Indian War**__ - battle of quebec, Austria allied with Russia and France, Britain allied with Prussia, Britain wins with naval power

__**Montcalm and Wolfe**__ - General James Wolf = British leader, General Louis-Joseph Montcalm = French leader, both died during the French-Indian War

__**Treaty of Paris**__ - French forced to make peace after many British victories, 1763, ceded Canada and lands east of Mississippi to Britain, French gave Louisiana territory to Spanish, ended French and Indian War

__**Scurvy and yellow fever**__ - conditions of the naval ships were very repulsive, these diseases were rampant and constant

__**Press-ganged**__ - lower class forced to duty in the military services, usually vegabonds and the unemployed

__**Coitus interuptus and infanticide**__ - a way of birth control, crime of abandoning a child or "accidently" smothering a child in the parents' bed within a year of birth, to get rid of an extra mouth to feed

__**Potatoes and maize**__ - brought from Europe to America, peasants forced to rely on small plots of land, little effort to grow large quantities, easily stored for winter

**__Agricultural enclosures__** - large landowners took old fields and small pieces of land to form large estates, cooperative farming and open field system, increase food production, farmers become wage laborers, no more traditional patterns in English village life

__**Bank of England**__ - recieve deposits, exchange foreign currencies, made loans, lend money, used "banknotes," created notion of public and private debt for the London financial community: financing larger armies and other government undertakings

__**“banknotes”**__ - paper currency replacing gold and silver, used for credit


 * __Joh____n Law’s “bubble”__ ** - tried to form the French Company into a national bank, people drove the price of stock very high and made the bank go bankrupt, so French public finance wa slow in development

__ **The “putting out” or “domestic system”** __ - cottage industry, merchants give raw materials such as wool or fleece to the rural workers in the countryside, one cottage would make yarn, move to the next to weave into cloth on looms, the finished products would be given to the merchants to sell for profit, the rural workers were also able to recieve wages as agricultural laborers

__**Richard Arkwright’s “water frame”**__ - higher demand of yarn, helped make large quantities of yarn after the invention of the shuttle frame to make more cloth

__**The country house**__ - a place of privacy and indulgence, aristocrats use as vacation, usually Georgian style, lower for public guests, upper for private rooms, sometimes a park or extra land for more seculsion

__**Thomas Gainsborough**__ - artist //Conversation in the park// showed the relaxed state of the aristocrats at their parks and country houses

__**Grand Tour**__ -intended to train young men in becoming sophisticated behavior and complete their education

**__Hercuaneum and Popmeii__** - great sightseeing stops for grand tours, tourist attractions, ancient Roman towns

__**London’s one million**__ //-// population of London making it the largest city of Europe

__**Beggars and prostitutes**__ - no more charity because of fear of inclinations to crimes and stimulate greed, government should also be included in charity through public work

__**“balance of power”**__-counterbalancing the power of a state by another to prevent any one state form dominating the others

__**“reason of state”**__-where a ruler looks beyond dynastic interests and focuses on the betterment of the state

Chapter 19

 * 1) __**July 14, 1789**__ -Bastille Day, beginning of the French Revolution
 * 2) __**The Bastille**__ -a royal armory filled with arms and ammunition in Paris, state prison, seen as a symbol of the government's despotic policies
 * 3) __**July 4, 1776**__ -American Independence Day
 * 4) __**Natural rights**__ -certain inalienable rights to which all people are entitled, including the right to life, liberty, and property; freedom of speech and religion; and equality before the law
 * 5) __**Yorktown**__ -American and French army under Washington forced British army under General Cornwallis to surrender
 * 6) __**The Constitution of 1787**__ -revised constitution, central government was superior to state governments, three branches with checks and balances: president, legislature, supreme courts
 * 7) __**Bill of Rights**__ -important to the success of the United States Constitution, ten amendments to the Constitution, derived from the natural rights philosophy
 * 8) __**The Marquis de Lafayette**__ -obtained much information for Europe about America, one of the French officers who served in the American war, aristocrat, member of the Society of Thirty
 * 9) __**First Estate**__ -consisted of clergy, exempt from //taille//, divided into higher clergy and parish priests
 * 10) __**Second estate**__ -composed of nobility, held many leading positions, gained status from officeholding, sought to expand their privileges at the expense of the monarchy
 * 11) __**Taille**__ -France's chief tax on land
 * 12) __**Third Estate**__ -consisted on commoners, majority of French population, peasants were the largest segment, wage earners, economic discontent esp. in Paris
 * 13) __**The Bourgeoisie**__ -middle class, inhabitants (merchants and artisans) of boroughs and burghers (towns)
 * 14) __**French Parlements**__ -wanted reform, responsible for registering royal decrees, defenders of "liberty" against the arbitrary power of the monarchy
 * 15) __**Vote by order by or head?**__-cause of division at estates general of whether delegates should vote by order or by head where each delegate gets one vote
 * 16) **Abbe Sieyes-**** one representative that issued pamphlet saying 3rd estate is everything, but nothing in political order and demands to become something **
 * 17) **The National Assembly-**** 1st estate declared in favor of voting by order, the 3rd estate responded on june 17, 1789, by voting to constitute itself a national assembly and decided to draw up constitution **
 * 18) __**The Tennis Court Oath-**__the oath that the representatives took on a tennis court near their original meeting place that they were locked out of agreeing to meet until they made a french constitution
 * 19) **Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen-**this charter of basic liberties reflected ideas of major philosophes of french enlightenment and owed much to declaration of independence and american state constitution, declaration began with ringing affirmation of natural and imprescriptible rights of man to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression, affirmed destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming end to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all men, and access to public office based on talent, monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in legislative process, freedom of speech and press coupled with outlawing of arbitrary arrests
 * 20) **Olympe de Gouges-**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">chief advocate for political rights for women,
 * 21) __**Civil Constitution of the Clergy-**__ bishops and priests elected by people and paid by state, all clergy required to swear oath of allegiance to Civil Constitution, since pope forbade it, only 54% of french parish clergy took oath and majority of bishops refused, critical development because Catholic Church, important institution in life of french people, now became enemy of revolution, civil constitution often viewed as serious tactical blunder on part of national assembly for by arousing the opposition of the church, it gave counterrevolution a popular base to operate
 * 22) **The Jacobins-**political club offering more radical solutions to the nation’s problem, most famous club, first emerged as gathering of more radical deputies at beginning of revolution, especially during events of night of august 4, 1789-after october 1789, they occupied former jacobin convent in paris, jacobin clubs formed in provinces where they were mostly discussion groups, eventually joined together in extensive correspondence network and by spring 1790 were seeking affiliation with Parisian club-One year later, there were 900 Jacobin clubs in france associated with parisian center, members usually elite of local societies, but also artisans and tradespeople
 * 23) **Escape to Varennes-**Louis XVI sought to flee France in June 1791 and almost succeeded before being recognized, captured at Varennes, and brought back to Paris
 * 24) **Declaration of Pillnitz-**On August 27 1791, emperor leopold II of austria and king frederick william II of prussia issued declaration of pillnitz, which invited other european monarchs to take most effectual means-put king of france in state to strengthen, perfect liberty, bases of monarchical government equally becoming to rights of sovereigns and to well being of french nation
 * 25) **Paris Commune-** led by newly appointed minister of justice, Georges Danton, the sans-culottes sought revenge on those who helped king and resisted the popular will, fears of treachery intensified by advance of a prussian army on paris, thousands of presumed traitors were arrested and massacred as ordinary parisian tradespeople and artisans solved problem of overcrowded prisons by mass executions of their inmates, in september 1792, newly elected national convention began sessions, called to draft new constitution, acted as sovereign ruling body of France
 * 26) **Sans-culottes-**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">patriots without fine clothes who made up most of paris commune
 * 27) **Georges Danton-**<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">newly appointed minister of justice of paris commune
 * 28) **National Convention-**called to draft new constitution, acted as sovereign ruling body of France
 * 29) __**Girondins**__-faction of national convention, **<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">leaders came from gironde department located in southwest france **
 * 30) **The Mountain-other faction of national convention,** <span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">members’ seats were on side of convention hall where floor slanted up
 * 31) **The Vendee-**authority of convention repudiated in western france particularly in department of the vendee by peasants who revolted against the new military draft, vendeen rebellion escalated into full blown counterrevolutionary appealed to old regime
 * 32) **Committee of Public Safety-** to administer the government, convention gave broad powers to executive committee called committee of public safety, dominated initially by danton
 * 33) **Maximilian Robespierre-<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">one of most important members of committee of public safety, small town lawyer who moved to paris as member of estates general **
 * 34) __**Reign of Terro****r-**__to meet domestic crisis, the national convention and the committee of public safety established the reign of terror
 * 35) **The Guillotine-**evolutionary device for quick/efficient beheading
 * 36) __**Law of General Maximum-**__established price controls on goods declared of 1st necessity-from food and drink to fuel and clothing
 * 37) __**Temple of Reason-**__cathedral of notre dame designated temple of reason
 * 38) __**Toussaint L’Ouverture-**__leadership of the revolt taken over by toussaint l’ouverture, son of african slaves, who seized control of all of hispaniola by 1801
 * 39) __**Thermadorian Reaction-**__after robespierre’s execution, revolutionary fervor gave way to thermidorian reaction named after thermidor month, terror abated
 * 40) __**Directory-**__executive authority (directory) made of 5 directors elected by the council of elders from a list presented by the council of 500
 * 41) __**Gracchus Babeuf-**__some radicals went beyond earlier goals especially gracchus babeuf, who was appalled at misery of common people and wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise-his conspiracy of equals was crushed in 1796 and he was executed in 1797
 * 42) __**Napoleon Bonaparte's Italian and Egyptian Campaigns-**__ soon after marriage he was made commander of the french army in italy-turned a group of ill disciplined soldiers into an effective fighting force and in series of stunning victories defeated austrians and dictated peace to them in 1797, throughout italian campaign, napoleon won confidence of his men by energy, charm, and ability to understand complex issues quickly and make fast decisions, tough with officers and drove them hard, with rank and file soldiers, he took different approach-ate with them, gave them good food and clothing, charmed them, throughout rest of his life,, these qualities combined with keen intelligence, ease with words, confidence enabled him to influence people and win their firm support-saw himself as man of destiny and great man who mastered luck and military genius with gift for leading that couldn’t be learned, in 1797, he returned to france as conquering hero and given command of army training to invade england, believed that french were unready for such invasion, proposed to strike indirectly at britain by taking egypt and threatening india, major source of british wealth, british controlled seas and by 1799 cut off supplies from napoleon’s army in egypt
 * 43) **First Consul-**executive power in new government vested in hands of 3 consuls, although as article 42 said the decision of the first consul will suffice
 * 44) **Emperor-**in 1802 he was made consul for life and in 1804 returned france to monarchy-crowned himself emperor napoleon I
 * 45) **The Concordat-**pope got right to depose french bishops, gave him little real control over church since state nominated bishops, church could hold processions again and reopen seminaries, pope agreed not to raise question of church lands confiscated during revolution,<span style="background-color: transparent; color: #4a86e8; font-family: 'Shadows Into Light Two'; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline;">catholicism not re-established as state religion only as majority’s religion, clergy paid by state, but to avoid appearance of state church, protestant ministers also paid by state, church no longer enemy of french government, but reassured those who got church lands that they wouldn’t lose them, making them napoleon supporters
 * 46) **The Civil Code-**preserved most of revolutionary gains by recognizing principle of equality of all citizens before law, right of individuals to choose professions, religious toleration, and abolition of serfdom and feudalism, property rights still protected while employer interested safeguarded by outlawing trade unions and strikes, reflected revolutionary aspirations for uniform legal system, legal equality, protection of property and individuals
 * 47) **Germaine de Stael-**1 prominent writer, Germaine de Stael, refused to accept napoleon’s growing despotism
 * 48) **Austerlitz-**faced a large russian army under tsar alexander i and some austrian troops at austerlitz, the combined allied forces outnumbered napoleon’s forces, but the tsar chose poor terrain for the battle and napoleon devastated the allied forces
 * 49) **Trafalgar-**napoleon contemplated invasion of england and even collected ships for it, he couldn’t overcome british navy’s decisive defeat of a combined french spanish fleet at trafalgar in 1805
 * 50) **Fraternitie-**political creed arose during french revolution in french people’s emphasis on brotherhood and solidarity against other peoples-involved unique cultural identity of a people based on a common language, religion, and national symbols
 * 51) __**Elba and St. Helena-islands napoleon was sent to after his downfall**__

__**Chapter 20**__

 * 1) **__Industrial Revolution__** - made Great Britain the wealthiest country in the world, spread across Europe and New World, started with the agricultural revolution, went through technological advances creating more efficient processes and decreased labor
 * 2) **__Agricultural Revolution__** - changes of methods of farming and stock breeding, increase of food production, lower prices of goods, could now purchase manufactured goods, rose along with rapid increase in population
 * 3) **__Cotton industry__** - started with cottage system, upgrading to technological advances, make cheap cotton goods, using less labor
 * 4) **__Canals__** - way of transportation by water: goods and people, connecting two larger bodies of water
 * 5) **__Richard Arkwright’s water frame__ - spinning machine, powered by water or horse compensate with spinning jenny and flying shuttle, to make textiles**
 * 6) **__James Hargreve’s Spinning Jenny__ - creates more efficient process of larger quantities of yarn**
 * 7) **__Samuel Crompton’s mule -__** combined aspects of water frame and spinning jenny, hybrid of horse and donkey, stronger labor
 * 8) **__Hand-loom__** __weavers__ - slower process, earlier inefficient looms, replaced by machines, to make textiles
 * 9) **__The cottage__** __system__ - started at the homes of wage laborers under authority of a merchant, each house assigned a different job, earned wages
 * 10) **__Coal and__ coke** - coal used as natural resource to power the steam engine giving the factory a flexible location instead of next to the river, leading to coal production, coke used to slowly burn coal and heats faster than charcoal, more quantity can be made
 * 11) **__James__ Watt** - invented the steam engine
 * 12) **__Rotary__** __engine__ - turns a shaft and drives machinery
 * 13) **__Henry__** __Cort__ - developed the puddling process
 * 14) __Puddling__ - process of coke used to burn away pig iron and form high quality wrought iron (malleable and withstand strain)
 * 15) **__Richard__** __Trevithick__ - built the first steam-powered locomotive going 5 miles per hour
 * 16) **__George__** __Stephenson__ - built the Rocket with his son, locomotives were on the first time ont he modern railways in Britain
 * 17) **__The__** __Rocket__ - went 16 miles per hour, first to be used on the public railway
 * 18) __Railroads__ great way of transportation, new job opportunities, faster cheaper transportation, there became a new network "most important single factor in promoting European economic progress in the 1830s and 1840s
 * 19) **__The__** __Factory__ - taking over work in cottages, more job opportunities, paid wages to run machines, no more paid of production (cottage system) whole families work together
 * 20) **__Factory__** __discipline__ - need people to work hard hours, new system to form most efficient system, punishments if not up to owner's standards
 * 21) **__Great Exhibition of__** __1851__ - industrial fair, crystal palace, showing all products created in the Industrial Revolution, man's domination over nature, Queen Victoria and family came to see, also showed imperial power through India's products
 * 22) **__The Crystal__** __Palace__ - made entirely of glass and iron, tribute to engineeering skills
 * 23) **Tariffs** - used for the Continent to compete with British's cheap goods, protective tariffs
 * 24) **__Joint-stock investment__ banks**- <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">a bank created by selling shares of stock to investors. Such banks potentially have access to much more capital than do private banks owned by one or a few individuals.
 * 25) **__Credit__** __Moblier__ - french banking company financed products during Industrial Revolution
 * 26) **__The__ Kreditanstalt** - Austrian bank, known for commerce and Industry, largest bank of Austria-Hungary, finance
 * 27) **__The American__** __System__ - efficient way of making finished products identical, reduced costs, saved labor
 * 28) **__Steam__ boats** - transportation through water and canals, people and products for market
 * 29) **__India’s cotton cloth__ production** - handmade cotton cloth, deliberate policy to prevent growing Industrial Revolution, deal with Britain to export raw material and buy British-made goods
 * 30) **__Ireland ands the__** __potato -__ the potato provides great nutrician and easy farming, Ireland relatively poor so potato helped feed the people and increase population, grows three times more, depended on potato for survival
 * 31) **__The Great__** __Famine__ - a fungus spread across the potatos in Ireland causing malnutritian and starvation
 * 32) __Suburbs__ - outer ring of the cities, wealthy, middle-class people could have their own private house and garden, insulated themselves from bad conditions in cities
 * 33) **__Britain’s Poor Law__** __Commission__ - made detailed reports of the poor, moral and physical consequences of cities and sanitation
 * 34) **__Edwin__ Chadwick** - urban reformer, formed modern sanitary reforms with efficient sewers and piped water, wanted to eliminate poor and squalor, //Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain//
 * 35) **Cholera**- <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">an infectious epidemic disease common in many urban areas during the nineteenth century concern about the disease and the filthy conditions that helped it spread led to public health measures.
 * 36) __Bourgeoisie__ - originally burgher or town dweller, had jobs and paid wages, special set of rights, upgraded to be able to buy land
 * 37) **__The old and new__** __elites__ - new opportunities to new industrial middle class, start to earn status through profits in money, inventions, business, and ownership, new entrepreneurs, access more wealth and come in equality with traditional landed elites
 * 38) **__Working__ class** - increased use of women and children, laboring class under the entrepreneurs and middle class, consisting of Proletariat
 * 39) **__Child__** __labor__ - cheap form of labor, easily controlled and punished, at very young age at seven start working
 * 40) **__Domestic__ servants** - those who work in the employer's house, traditional elite order
 * 41) **__Trade__** __unions__- <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">an association of workers in the same trade, formed to help members secure better wages, benefits, and working conditions.
 * 42) **__Robert__** __Owen__ - called for creation of voluntary associations to demonstarte benefits of cooperative instead of competitive living, appeal to leaders of trade unionists, social reformer
 * 43) **__The Grand National Consolidated Trade__** __Union__ followed Owen's program, February 1834, national federation of trade unions, coordinate a general strike for eight-hour working day, collpase with no working-class support
 * 44) **__The Amalgamated Society of__** __Engineers__ - largest succesful union, provision of generous unemployment benefits in return for a small weekly payment, practical gain
 * 45) __Luddites__ - skilled craftspeople in Midlands and northern England, 1812, attacked machines believed to threaten their livelihoods
 * 46) **__Chartism and the People’s__** __Charter__ - "first important political movement of working men organized during 19th century," wanted to achieve political democracy, named after People's Charter, some women joined as well
 * 47) **__The London Workingmen’s__** __Association__ - drew up people's charter, demanded foruniversal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, elimination of property qualifications for members of Parliament, annual sessions of Parliament
 * 48) **__Factory__** __acts__ - government starts to take action against the evils of industrial factories, reform-minded individuals, condemning abuse of children, shortened working times and gave education during working hours, system of inspection ensures these new rules
 * 49) **__Ten Hours Act of__** __1847__ - children between thirteen and eighteen are limited to ten hours a day, women were also included
 * 50) **__Coal Mines Act of__** __1842__ - eliminated employments of under seven years old of boys and women in the mines
 * 51) ** __The__ ** __Workhouse__ - Poor Law Act of 1834, jobless poor people were forced to live, family members were separated, forced to lvie in dormitories, given work assignments, and fed awful food

[|Quizlet]


 * Summarize chief contributions of each of following to western civilization: **


 * Christianity: Provides moral framework for law, 10 commandments, during Middle Ages provides a role for government and education-bring unity to Europe, provide common rallying cause, unify Christian kingdoms against Muslim encroachment-don’t focus on much. The church developed an organized government under the leadership of the pope. It simulated the classical tradition and through its clergy brought Christianized civilizations. **


 * Feudalism/Manorialism: Sets a social separation and establishes a political system-divides power, sets up a hierarchy. European society was dominated by a landed aristocracy whose primary function was to fight. These nobles built innumerable castles in the country side. Lords and vassals seemed forever mired in endless petty conflicts but over time medieval kings began to exert centralizing authority and inaugurated the process of developing new kinds of monarchial states. **


 * Terms: **


 * __Babylonian Captivity/Great Western Schism:__ The 'Babylonian Captivity' - the period from 1309 to 1378 when the Popes were based in Avignon, France rather than Rome - and the Papal Schism of 1378-1417,when French Cardinals abandoned a Papacy that had returned to Rome in favor of their own French Pope back in Avignon severely damaged the credibility of the Catholic Church. **


 * __Conciliar Movement:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">reform movement in the 14th, 15th and 16th century Roman Catholic Church which held that final authority in spiritual matters resided with the Roman Church as corporation of Christians, embodied by a general church council, not with the pope. Church movement centered on the three general councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basle. Its original purpose was to heal the papal schism caused by there being two, and later three, popes at the same time. The movement was successful, deposing or accepting the resignation of the popes concerned. It declared the superiority of a general council of the Church over the papacy **


 * __Wycliffe and Hus:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">John Wycliffe said that the Bible should be a Christian’s sole authority and not the pope, John Hus urged the elimination of the worldliness and corruption of the clergy and attacked excessive power of the papacy within the Catholic Church. He was condemned as a heretic and burned at the stake. Jon Wycliffe was an English theologian and early proponent of reform in the Roman Catholic Church during the 14th century. He made an English translation of the Bible in one complete edition (King James Version) and is considered a precursor of the Protestant Reformation. Jan Hus was a religious thinker, philosopher, and reformer. His followers became known as Hussites. The Roman Catholic Church considered his teachings heretical, and Hus was excommunicated in 1411, condemned by the Council of Constance, and burned at the stake on July 6, 1415. **


 * Describe following movements of Renaissance era. **


 * __Secularism:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">a doctrine that rejects religion and religious considerations. the belief that government or other entities should exist separately from religion and/or religious beliefs. **


 * __Humanism:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">A Renaissance cultural movement that turned away from medieval scholasticism and revived interest in ancient Greek and Roman thought. The ideal that through education in the sources of classical, and especially Christian, antiquity, one could instill a true inner piety or an inward religious feeling that would bring about a reform of the church and society. **


 * __Italian Renaissance:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">the early period when Italy was the center of the Renaissance. The opening phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the 13th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval and Early Modern Europe. It was spawned by the birth of the philosophy of humanism, which emphasized the importance of individual achievement in a wide range of fields. The early humanists, studied the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans for inspiration and ideology, mixing the philosophies of Plato and other ancient thinkers with the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Under the influence of the humanists, literature and the arts climbed to new levels of importance **


 * __Northern Renaissance:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">Cultural and intellectual movement of northern Europe; began later than Italian Renaissance c. 1450; centered in France, Low Countries, England, and Germany; featured greater emphasis on religion than Italian Renaissance. The Northern Renaissance is the term used to describe the Renaissance in northern Europe, or more broadly in Europe outside Italy. Before 1450 Italian Renaissance humanism had little influence outside Italy. From the late 15th century the ideas spread around Europe. After 1500 Renaissance spread around Europe, but Late Gothic influences remained present until the arrival of Baroque. In France, King Francis I imported Italian art, commissioned Italian artists, and built grand palaces at great expense, beginning the French Renaissance. **


 * Answer following questions. **


 * 1. Describe general nature and accomplishments of New Monarchies. monarchs in these countries limited the private armies of the aristocracy, raised taxes, created professional armies, and in reestablished the centralized power of monarchical governments. England, france, spain. They limited the power of the feudal aristocracy while creating efficient, centralized systems of taxation. They maintained a standing army loyal to the monarch while encouraging some sense of national identity. They fostered trade, both internally and externally and enforced religious unity within their countries. **


 * 2. Describe political and economic life in early modern period in these places: **


 * __a. Spain:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">In the sixteenth century Spain had a large economy due to vast colonies in latin and central America, bringing home gold and valuable spices. They were one of the politically dominant powers, their empire was perhaps the largest at the time and had a presence across Europe, Belgium, the Netherlands and about half of Italy were Spanish possessions. Spain began declining after the independence of the Netherlands in 1580 and events such as the Treaty of Utercht. Politically Spain was ruled directly by the King, at first from the Austrian House of Habsburg and later the French House of Bourbon. Spain had absolute monarchy but was controlled by the Holy Roman Empire (Charles V) around mid-1500s. Their government was strongly tied to the church unlike most of the Protestant nations. After they found the New World they obtained lots of gold and silver which caused inflation in their homelands. The Spanish set up sugar and other cash crop plantations and started the transatlantic slave trade. **


 * __b. France:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> By the start of the Sixteenth century France had a fairly weak economy due to the last century having spend a large portion of its treasury to driving the English out of the French mainland in the first Hundred Years War. However for most of the early modern period they were politically dominant, large colonies in what later became Canada and Louisiana as well as the Caribbean which boosted their economy through spice and fur trading. They prospered well under some of the Bourbon Monarchs, and by 1700 were seen as one of the most stable states in Europe, Russia were so influenced by them they modelled their government after them and French became the language of the Russian aristocracy. French political power declines during the 18th century, were the French were defeated in wars such as the Spanish succession and the Seven Years War (considered by Churchill to be the First World War) were Britain gained control of Canada. During this period France evolved from a feudal regime to an increasingly centralized state organized around a powerful absolute monarchy that relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit support of the established Church. It experienced an economic recovery. **


 * __c. England:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">During the early modern period England became to be known as a dominant world power. Before 1700 their Empire was small in size. In the 17th century political life was dominated between Puritans after the Civil War and Royalist conservatives after and before. England, and later Britain after 1701 union of England and Scotland was one of the more liberal countries in general, making it more open to knew ideas like economics allowing its economy to grow, as did its American and Indian colonies. Unlike the majority of European countries, England/Britain was to an extend democratic, the Monarchs power was limited and a House of Parliament was elected by the people (as long as they were men from a wealthy background above 21 of English nationality). During the early modern period England changed from being series of regional economies largely isolated from one another, to being an integrated national economy. London played a crucial role in this development. The battle of Bosworth marked the end of the long period of civil war known as the Wars of the Roses and the establishment of the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII, which brought a greater degree of stable centralized government to England. **


 * __d. Poland:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">Poland's economy never got the chance to modernize like other powers. Whilst a major power in the 16th and to some degree the 17th, it was in decline in the 18th. In the early modern period it was in a union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, comprising of most of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus and parts of Ukraine and Germany. Political life was democratic in the same way as England, a constitutional monarchy with an elected ruling body, ot an extent. It was fairly liberal politically was a lerge degree of religious tolerence. Economic life was mainly logging in the extensive forests as well as furs and agriculture. After the Partitions of Poland ending in 1795 in ceased to exist, having been taken over by Austria, Prussia and Russia. They saw a rise and partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable nation states. Economic origins of anti-Semitism began during this period. **


 * __e. Holy Roman Empire:__ The fundamental institutions of the later Middle Ages( the feudal system, the universal authority of the Pope, the Holy Roman Empire, and the system of trade regulated by Mediaeval guilds) were all undermined. As a result of large-scale investment of capital, booming manufacture, and expanding trade and commerce, the focus of economic life increasingly shifted away from the manorial estates of the feudal nobility to the newly emerging cities, that enabled their prominence as centers of cultural culmination. **


 * 3. What was the relation of the Ottoman Empire to the development of Modern Europe? **


 * The Ottoman Empire failed to impact the development of modern Europe, aside for providing a place for British capital to be spent during the industrial revolution. The conservative forces and the janissaries prevented the major military and economic reform the ottomans needed to survive, and the empire collapsed at the end of World War One. **


 * 4. Define and tell the importance of each of the following persons or events. **


 * __a. Niccolo Machiavelli:__ Introduced realism into political theory and thought, replacing "Idealism", a more theoretical judgement of humanity (in art, judgement ). **


 * __b. Thomas Hobbes:__ He believed humans were guided by animalistic ideals and a ruthless struggle for self-preservation and that is why all power should be in the hands of a sovereign authority, preferably a single ruler who served as an executor. He believed subjects most not rebel and if they do they must be suppressed. **


 * __c. John Locke:__ He believed that humans lived in a state of equality and freedom rather than a state of war. He believed everyone had the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. The government was established to protect these rights and would work as long as the people would act reasonably toward it. His philosophies helped support the demand for constitutional governments. **


 * __d. Charles V.:__ He was the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and he strongly supported Catholicism and went to war with the Schmalkaldic League because of their belief in Lutheranism. After a failed attempt at bring Catholicism back as the only religion in Germany he stepped down from power. **


 * __e. Peace of Augsburg;__ It was a treaty between Charles V and the forces of the Schmalkaldic League, an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of Augsburg. The Peace established the principle Cuius regio, eius religio, which allowed German princes to select either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states. **


 * __f. Treaty of Westphalia:__ In 1648, it brought an end to the Thirty Years' War, which had drowned Europe in blood in battles over religion, defined the principles of sovereignty and equality in numerous sub-contracts, and in this way became the constitution of the new system of states in Europe. **


 * Reformation: **


 * 1. Define the causes of the Protestant Reformation **


 * __a. Political-__ many peasants were discontent and believed that Luther wanted them to rebel against their lords, German Protestants united in the Schmalkaldic league to resist Charles V’s attempts to assimilate them into the Catholic church and gain more control over them, Peace of Augsburg acknowledged. Pluralism (Bishops, archbishops, and cardinals took over more than one office which led to absenteeism **


 * __b. Economic:__ highest positions among the clergy were held by nobles or wealth members of the bourgeoise **


 * __c. Religious-__ desire for religious reform, justification by faith, disbelief in many Catholic traditions and practices such as indulgences and transubstantiation. Corruption in the Catholic Church; Papal Courts preoccupation with finances (Indulgences); Lack of Spiritual Leadership **


 * 2. Contrast thinking of each of the following: **


 * __a. Martin Luther:__ Thought humans were not saved through their good works but through faith in the promises of God (Justification in faith alone). Did not agree with the Church selling Indulgences. **


 * __b. John Calvin:__ agreed with Martin Luther’s justification by faith alone yet also believed in predestination. **


 * __c. Ignatius Loyala:__ He formed the Jesuits. Believed in absolute obedience to the papacy, a strict hierarchical order for society, and the use of education to achieve glory. **


 * __d. Erasmus:__ emphasized inner piety and de-emphasize the external forms of religion such as sacraments, pilgrimages, fast, veneration of saints, and relics. **


 * 3. Define and tell importance of each of following terms: **


 * a. __Habsburgs__ : They were one of the principal dynasties of Europe from the 15th to the 20th century. The highpoint of Habsburg power came under Charles who ruled over an empire over 'which the sun never set'. The dynastic division at Charles death initiated the Spanish Habsburg line (until 1700) and the Austrian line which ruled the Habsburg possessions in central Europe until 1918. **


 * b. __Thirty Years’ War:__ the conflict began in the German states as a struggle between Catholicism and Calvinism. Europe’s major powers backed either the northern Protestant Union or the Southern Catholic League. As the war progressed, religion receded in importance, replaced by a struggle between the French Bourbons and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs. War was ended by the Peace of Westphalia which stated all German States were free to determine their own religion. **


 * c. __Schmalkaldic League:__ Formed as a result of German Emperor Charles V demanding that all Lutherans return to the Catholic Church. Eight Lutheran princes and eleven Lutheran imperial cities formed a defense alliance against Charles V. The league proved victorious they survived through War. Their actions helped lead to the Peace of Augsburg which gave Lutherans equal rights in Germany. **


 * d __. Inquisition:__ It was the "fight against heretics," with the use of torture, by several institutions within the justice-system of the Roman Catholic Church. It started in the 12th century, with the introduction of torture in the persecution of heresy. Inquisition practices were used also on offences against canon law other than heresy. **


 * e. __Anabaptists: f__ avored radical reform movements. They felt that the true Christian church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone a spiritual rebirth and who had been baptize into the church. Their ideals were attractive to peasants, miners, an artisans because they could no longer financial afford to stay part of the Catholic church. **


 * f. __French Civil War:__ Was driven by religious separations. The Huguenots took a stand against the Catholic Church and French Monarchy. Resentful of the growing power of monarchial centralization, towns and provinces were willing to join a revolt against the monarchy. **


 * g. __Council of Trent:__ Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs. It acknowledged supremacy of popes, who had triumphed over bishops and councils. **


 * h. __Huguenots:__ French Calvinist who were a major opponent in the French Civil War **


 * Economic Revolution **


 * 1. What was the importance of the Opening of the Atlantic? **


 * The Atlantic Ocean acted as a geographical "buffer" that made more deliberate and effective control over the colonists impractical and difficult, thereby, allowing those colonists who advocated revolution and freedom to freely nurture their plans and ambitions and see them come to fruition. **


 * 2. What goods were brought to Europe as a result of the Opening? **


 * Tobacco, cotton, and sugar **


 * 3. What is meant by the term Commercial Revolution **


 * fundamental change in the quantity and scope of commerce. **


 * The focus of commerce shifted from Mediterranean to Atlantic ports, chartered companies were organized and continued improvements in navigation and ship construction sped long voyages. As a worldwide trade evolved, the principles of mercantilism were adopted, and local trade barriers were abrogated, stimulating internal commerce. **


 * 4. What were the effects of the Commercial Revolution on Europe? **


 * a. __Economic__ : commercial trade brought economic prosperity to Europe leading to prosperity financed new forms of cultural expression during this period. Inflation became a problem as a result of the revolution. **


 * b. __Social__ : population increase, the emergence of the middle class, and changes in the social structure (role of the nobility) **


 * c. __Political__ : Led to mercantilism in Europe. **


 * d. __Religious__ : Religion was losing its grip on Europe, in part because of the religious wars. As kings wrenched power from the church, especially after the Reformation, and intellectuals engaged in thinking outside the boundaries of church theology secularism grew. **


 * e. __Intellectual__ : Led to more geographical education in preparation for voyages across the world. **


 * __5. Define mercantilism.__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">an economic theory that held that a nation's prosperity depended on its supply of gold and silver and that the total volume of trade is unchangeable; its adherents therefore advocated that the government play an active role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, especially through the use of tariffs. **


 * Scientific Revolution **


 * __1. Explain the meaning of the term Scientific Revolution:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> the transition from the medieval world-view to a largely secular, rational, and materialistic perspective that began in the seventeenth century and was popularized in the eighteenth. The Scientific Revolution was a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed starting in Ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages, and laid the foundation of modern science. **


 * __2. How did each of the following contribute to the Scientific Revolution?__ **


 * 1) **  __Francis Bacon -__ Francis Bacon was a lawyer and lord chancellor. He rejected Copernicus and Kepler and misunderstood Galileo. His unfinished work The Great Instauration urged people “to commence a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge, raised upon the proper foundations.” Bacon’s reconstruction consisted of a correct scientific method built on inductive principles. He said that scientists should proceed from specific to general. His scientific method centered on carefully organized experiments and thorough, systematic observations. Bacon wanted practical science, not pure science. He wanted science to benefit industry, agriculture, and trade. He said that human power should be used “to conquer nature in action.” Bacon suggested using his orderly scientific method to conquer nature. The Scientific Revolution was a period when new ideas in physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, and other sciences led to a rejection of doctrines that had prevailed starting in Ancient Greece and continuing through the Middle Ages, and laid the foundation of modern science. developed a correct scientific method based on inductive reasoning; proceeded from the particular to the general  **
 * 2) **  __Nicolaus Copernicus-__ Nicolaus Copernicus is the author of On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres. He used a heliocentric conception for a simpler explanation than Ptolemy’s. Copernicus did not reject Aristotle’s principle of the existence of heavenly spheres moving in circular orbits developed a heliocentric(sun centered) conception of the universe  **
 * 3) **  __Johannes Kepler__ : great mathematician who believed that the secrets of nature were written in the language of math, imperial mathematician to rudolf II, where he gained possession of brahe’s detailed astronomical data and used them to arrive at his 3 laws of planetary motion, these laws may have confirmed kepler’s interest in music of spheres, but confirmed copernicus’s heliocentric theory while modifying it, drove another nail in coffin of aristotelian-ptolemaic system. his 3 laws of planetary motion proved “ Music of the spheres” & Copernicus heliocentric theory & eliminated he Ptolemaic system  **
 * 4) **  __Galileo Galilei:__ 1st European to make systematic observations of heavens by means of a telescope, beginning new age of astronomy, made remarkable discoveries: mountains and craters on the moon, 4 moons revolving around Jupiter, phases of Venus, sunspots, observations demolished another traditional aspect of cosmology in that the universe composed of material substance similar to earth’s rather than ethereal or perfect and unchanging substance, revelations published in The Starry Messenger 1610, stunned contemporaries and made europeans more aware of new picture of universe than mathematical theories of copernicus and kepler did, Starry Messenger, Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican. 1st European to make systematic observations of the heavens with the telescope & it was composed of substance similar to the Earth rather than ethereal substance  **
 * 5) **  __Isaac Newton: i__ nvented calculus, wrote principia, laws of motion, Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy-3 laws of motion. Invented calculus, a means of calculating rates of change; investigated the composition of light; made the laws of universal gravitation  **
 * 6) **  __René Descartes:__ proposed different approach to scientific methodology by emphasizing deduction and mathematical logic, explained each step in an argument should be as sharp and well founded as a mathematical proof in THE DISCOURSE ON METHOD. emphasized deduction and mathematical logic in his approach to the scientific method which complemented Bacon’s stress on experiment and induction; Outlined a new rational-mathematical system  **


 * 3. What was the impact of the Scientific Revolution on each of the following? **


 * __a. Philosophy:__ Many people began to think in a less restricted manner, and became more humanistic in their approach to reasoning. **


 * __b. Religion:__ The Reformation led to a weakening of religion. Scientific truths could be proven while religious truths could not and this led to skepticism in religion. **


 * __c. The world of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries:__ mechanistic world view, deism, inspire enlightenment **


 * Section III: Early Modern State **


 * a. Outline structure of following states as they evolved by 1648 **

individiual princes || expelled minorities-used religion to unify || protestant, anglican church, conflicts between anglicans and puritans || religious toleration, mostly Christian || mostly catholic with lutherans and calvinist-depended on prince of area ||
 * France || Spain || England || Holland || Holy Roman Empire ||
 * Political || Absolute monarchy, divine right monarchy || absolute monarchy, divine right monarchy || absolute monarchy || becoming a republic || divided-
 * Economic || early phases of mercantilism, guilds, internal trade barriers || depressed economic situation || some colonial activity overseas-trade || major trading center of world at time || agricultural with scattered commercial centers ||
 * Social || 3 estates-clergy, nobles, everyone else || traditional nobility, rigid class structure, lots of nobles || small nobility comparatively-more restrictive, || tolerant, bourgeois (middle class merchant type) || nobles and peasants ||
 * Religious || catholic with huguenot minority (calvin) || catholic-


 * b. What 3 states declined in Central Europe in the 17th/178th centuries? Why? **


 * Poland ceased to exist, the Holy Roman Empire declined because of the thirty years war, and Sweden (not 100% sure, is this central Europe?) Also, the Ottoman Empire experienced a great decline as the "sick man" of Europe. **


 * c. What 3 states rose in central europe in 17th/18th centuries? Why? **


 * Poland, Prussia and Austro-Hungarian **


 * d. What were the causes and effects of the English Civil War? **

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">Charles claimed to rule by divine right; parliament argued that its membership had rights that were separate from those granted to the king || Political || England became a Commonwealth and a Protectorate. || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">wealthy nobles tended to support Charles I, who opposed puritans on questions of religion <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">led to <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #366388; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">outright conflict <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> between royalist military forces and forces opposing Charles I || Religious || Cromwell made religion very strict ||
 * Causes || Effects ||
 * Political || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> struggle between king Charles I and <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #366388; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">the English parliament
 * Religious || <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #333333; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">parliament's members were mostly puritan and had the backing of the merchant class and lesser land owners


 * e. In what ways did the Glorious Revolution change England? **


 * __Social:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">Catholics were denied the right to vote and sit in the Westminster Parliament for over a century; they were also denied <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|commissions] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> in the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|army] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">, and the monarch was <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|forbidden to be Catholic or to marry a Catholic] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">, a prohibition still in force. The Revolution led to limited toleration for <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|nonconformist] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Protestants] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">, although it would be some time before they had full <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|political rights] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">. It has been argued[ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|who?] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">] that James's overthrow began modern English <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|parliamentary] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> democracy: the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Bill of Rights of 1689] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> has become one of the most important documents in the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|political history] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> of Britain and never since has the monarch held <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|absolute] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> power. **


 * __Political:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">established a Constitutional Monarchy in Britain, whereby Parliament wielded the majority of political power rather than the king (or queen), Granted freedom of religious practice to all, Got Britain involved in a long series of wars with France, which essentially were over who was to become the dominant global power. **


 * f. Define and tell significance of each of the following terms. **


 * 1) **  stuarts-english dynasty after the tudor dynasty- civil and foreign wars, a regicide, a republic, the great plague, the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Great Fire of London] and the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Glorious Revolution] . This was the era of <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Shakespeare], <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Wren] , <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Galileo] , <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Newton] and <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Pepys] , to name but a few. The era saw the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|settlement of the Americas] , trade with the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Spice Islands] , the birth of <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|steam engines] , <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|microscopes] , <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|coffee houses] and <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|newspapers] .  **
 * 2) **  whigs-Wanted to exclude James and establish a Protestant king with toleration of Dissenters  **
 * 3) **  tories-Supported the king, despite their dislike of Jams as a Catholic, because they believed that parliament should not tamper with the lawful succession to the throne.  **


 * g. In what ways did each of the following help to establish the basis for a modern state in France? **


 * 1. __Politique:__ ruler who governs without letting his or her personal feelings get in the way of doing what was best for his/her country. This aided in establishing a modern state in France because now rulers had the country’s best interest in mind allowing them to rule void of bias, selfish wants, and self benefit, in order to allow the economy to flourish, freedoms to the enjoyed by its people, and a balanced and efficiently run government. **


 * __2. Henry IV:__ played a major role in establishing the basis for a modern state in France because he regularized state finance, promoted agriculture, drained swamps to create productive crop lands, undertook many public works, and education, even establishing a university. He also protected forests from further devastation, built a new system of tree-lined highways, and constructed new bridges and canals. There was a 1200 m canal built in the park at the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|royal Château at Fontainebleau] . In addition, the king renewed Paris as a great city, with the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Pont Neuf], which still stands today, constructed over the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Seine] River in order to connect the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Right] and <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Left Banks] of the city. Henry IV also had the Place Royale built and added the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Louvr] e to it. King Henry's vision also extended beyond France, and he financed several expeditions of <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts] and <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Samuel de Champlain] to North America that saw France lay claim to Canada. All of these policies, reform, and changes ultimately led to an increase in employment, better education, increased construction, and environmental protection, all contributing to a modernized state. **


 * __3. Cardinal Richelieu:__ the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|authoritarian] measures he employed to maintain power. He <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|censored] the press, established a large network of internal spies, forbade the discussion of political matters in public assemblies, and had those who dared to conspire against him prosecuted and executed. He has even been referred to as the "father of the modern <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|nation-state], modern centralised power [and] the modern <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|secret service] ." His stubborn refusal to let courtly intrigues and foreign interests dominate the government combined with his ideas of a strong nation-state and aggressive foreign policy helped create the modern system of international politics. The notions of <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|national sovereignty] and <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|international law] can majorly be traced, at least in part, to Richelieu's policies and theories, especially as enunciated in the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Treaty of Westphalia] that ended the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Thirty Years' War] . Richelieu helped states and governments recognize the importance of control in his modern-day, as well as how to best keep such an order while not too greatly infringing upon peoples’ rights. **


 * __4. Cardinal Mazarin:__ He continued Richelieu’s centralizing policies, but his attempts to increase royal revenues led to the civil wars, the Fronde. **


 * __5. Fronde:__ its result in the alteration of aristocratic governments into absolute monarchical governments. The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|parlements] and the Fronde of the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|nobles] . The Fronde des parlements broke out directly after the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Peace of Westphalia], and the nuclei of armed bands under aristocratic leaders that had terrorized parts of France had been hardened in a generation of war in Germany where troops still tended to operate autonomously. <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Louis XIV] realized that he must reorganize French fighting forces under a stricter hierarchy because leaders ultimately could be made or unmade by the King. Fronde, therefore, resulted in the disempowerment of the territorial aristocracy and the emergence of an <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[| absolute monarchy] . **


 * __6. Louis XIV:__ realized that he must reorganize French fighting forces under a stricter hierarchy because leaders ultimately could be made or unmade by the King, he absolved all power from ministers, princes, and nobility. **


 * __7. Jean Baptiste Colbert:__ In January 1664 Colbert became the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Superintendent of buildings] ; in 1665 he became <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Controller-General of Finances] ; in 1669, he became <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Secretary of State of the Navy] ; he also gained appointments as minister of <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|commerce], of the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|colonies] and of the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|palace] . In short, Colbert acquired power in every department except that of war. The state, through Colbert's <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|dirigiste] policies, fostered manufacturing enterprises in a wide variety of fields. The authorities established new industries, protected inventors, invited in workmen from foreign countries, and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain the character of French goods in foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home consumer, Colbert had the quality and measure of each article fixed by law, punishing breaches of the regulations by public exposure of the delinquent and by destruction of the goods concerned, and, on the third offense, by the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|pillory] . When he had severely punished guilty officials, he turned his attention to the fraudulent creditors of the government. Colbert had a simple method of operation. He repudiated some of the public loans, and cut off from others a percentage, which varied, at first according to his own decision, and afterwards according to that of the council which he established to examine all claims against the state. Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To diminish the number of the privileged proved impossible, but Colbert firmly resisted false claims for exemption, and lightened the unjust direct taxation by increasing the indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not escape. At the same time he immensely improved the mode of collection on his own. **


 * h. What were the chief results of each of the following treaties? **


 * __1. Peace of Augsburg__ **


 * __Political:__ A treaty between <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[| Charles V] and the forces of the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Schmalkaldic League], an alliance of Lutheran princes, on September 25, 1555, at the imperial city of <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Augsburg] , now in present-day <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Bavaria] , <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Germany] . **


 * __Economic:__ This had minor effects on the economic situations of countries involved, but the princes won meaning economic growth was to them. **

** __2. Treaty of Westphalia__  **
 * __Religious:__ It officially ended the religious struggle between the two groups and made the legal division of <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[| Christendom] permanent within the <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Holy Roman Empire] . The Peace established the principle <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Cuius regio, eius religio], which allowed German princes to select either <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Lutheranism] or <span style="color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[| Catholicism] within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states. Subjects, citizens, or residents who did not wish to conform to the prince's choice were given a period in which they were free to migrate to different regions in which their desired religion had been accepted. **


 * __Political:__ It weakens the Hapsburg states of Austria and Spain, It Strengthened France by awarding it German territory, It made German princes independent of the Holy Roman Empire, The Treaty introduces the idea of negotiating terms of peace **


 * __Economic:__ **


 * __Religious:__ Ended the religious wars in Europe, <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">Protestants and Catholics were redefined as equal before the law, and <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Calvinism] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> was given legal recognition. **


 * __3. Treaty of Utrecht__ **


 * __Political:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> ended Spanish war, confirmed Phillip V as spanish ruler **


 * __Economic:__ <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> Treaty, France was stripped of two colonies important to the lucrative cod fishery - Acadia and Newfoundland. King Louis XIV, bankrupted by war, agreed to cede French land in North America to England, so the French passed most of Acadia to Britain. They still possessed a portion, one example being New Brunswick because of difficulties in interpreting Acadia's actual size. As well, France retained Cape Breton Island, Ile St. Jean, the St. Lawrence Peninsula and the St. Lawrence River. France also agreed to restore the drainage basin of Hudson Bay and to compensate England for its wartime losses **


 * __Religious:__ Louis XIV of France formally recognized the Protestant Succession. **


 * i. What were the origins of the balance of power? **


 * <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|English] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|foreign policy] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> strove to prevent creation of a single <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Universal Monarchy] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> in Europe, which many believed Spain or France might attempt to create. To maintain the balance of power, the English made alliances with other states—including <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Portugal] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">, the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Ottoman Empire] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">, and the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Netherlands] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">—to counter the perceived threat. These <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Grand Alliances] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> reached their height in the wars against <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Louis XIV] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;"> and <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|Louis XV of France] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">. They often involved the English (later the <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; text-decoration: initial; vertical-align: baseline;">[|British] <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #4a86e8; font-family: Arimo; font-size: 13px; vertical-align: baseline;">) paying large subsidies to European allies to finance large armies. **